Spinal anesthesia in an extremely low birth weight infant

Use of spinal anaesthesia in neonates and infants in Antananarivo, Madagascar: a retrospective descriptive study

Objective

The aim of this study was to present the first cases of spinal anesthesia, in newborns and infants, preterm/ex-prematures, in order to determine its feasibility and its potential harmlessness, in Antananarivo—Madagascar. Indeed, spinal anesthesia is a low cost technique and can limit respiratory complications, postoperative apnea a contrario with pediatric general anesthesia which can lead to perioperative risks.

Results

In a retrospective, descriptive, 7-year (2013 to 2019) period study, conducted in the University Hospital Joseph Ravoahangy Andrianavalona, 69 patients’ data files planned to have spinal anesthesia were recorded. These pediatric patients were predominantly male (sex ratio = 2.8) and 37 [28–52] days old. The smallest anesthetized child weighed 880 g; the youngest was 4 days old. Twenty-seven (27) of them were premature and 20.3% presented respiratory diseases. They were mostly scheduled for hernia repair (90%). Spinal anesthesia was performed, with a Gauge 25 Quincke spinal needle, after 2 [1–2] attempts with hyperbaric bupivacaine of 4 [3.5–4] mg. Failure rate was 5.8%. The heart rate was stable throughout perioperative period and no complications were observed.

Spinal anesthesia in children: A review

Even after a vast safety record, the role of spinal anesthesia (SA) as a primary anesthetic technique in children remains contentious and is mainly limited to specialized pediatric centers. It is usually practiced on moribund former preterm infants (<60 weeks post-conception) to reduce the incidence of post-operative apnea when compared to general anesthesia (GA). However, there is ample literature to suggest its safety and efficacy for suitable procedures in older children as well. SA in children has many advantages as in adults with an added advantage of minimal cardio-respiratory disturbance. Recently, several reports from animal studies have raised serious concerns regarding the harmful effects of GA on young developing brain. This may further increase the utility of SA in children as it provides all components of balanced anesthesia technique. Also, SA can be an economical option for countries with finite resources. Limited duration of surgical anesthesia in children is one of the major deterrents for its widespread use in them. To overcome this, several additives like epinephrine, clonidine, fentanyl, morphine, neostigmine etc. have been used and found to be effective even in neonates. But, the developing spinal cord may also be vulnerable to drug-related toxicity, though this has not been systematically evaluated in children. So, adjuvants and drugs with widest therapeutic index should be preferred in children. Despite its widespread use, incidence of side-effects is low and permanent neurological sequalae have not been reported with SA. Literature yields encouraging results regarding its safety and efficacy. Technical skills and constant vigilance of experienced anesthesia providers is indispensable to achieve good results with this technique.

Neuraxial analgesia in neonates and infants: a review of clinical and preclinical strategies for the development of safety and efficacy data

Neuraxial drugs provide robust pain control, have the potential to improve outcomes, and are an important component of the perioperative care of children. Opioids or clonidine improves analgesia when added to perioperative epidural infusions; analgesia is significantly prolonged by the addition of clonidine, ketamine, neostigmine, or tramadol to single-shot caudal injections of local anesthetic; and neonatal intrathecal anesthesia/analgesia is increasing in some centers. However, it is difficult to determine the relative risk-benefit of different techniques and drugs without detailed and sensitive data related to analgesia requirements, side effects, and follow-up. Current data related to benefits and complications in neonates and infants are summarized, but variability in current neuraxial drug use reflects the relative lack of high-quality evidence. Recent preclinical reports of adverse effects of general anesthetics on the developing brain have increased awareness of the potential benefit of neuraxial anesthesia/analgesia to avoid or reduce general anesthetic dose requirements. However, the developing spinal cord is also vulnerable to drug-related toxicity, and although there are well-established preclinical models and criteria for assessing spinal cord toxicity in adult animals, until recently there had been no systematic evaluation during early life. Therefore, in the second half of this review, we present preclinical data evaluating age-dependent changes in the pharmacodynamic response to different spinal analgesics, and recent studies evaluating spinal toxicity in specific developmental models. Finally, we advocate use of neuraxial drugs with the widest demonstrable safety margin and suggest minimum standards for preclinical evaluation before adoption of new analgesics or preparations into routine clinical practice.