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Calleja-Bueno L, Sainz Á, García-Sancho M, González-Martín JV, Díaz-Regañón D, Rodríguez-Franco F, Agulla B, Tormo B, Villaescusa A. First detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens and high infection rates of Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina in cattle in extensive grazing systems of Central Spain. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:e1090-e1100. [PMID: 34792293 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Bovine vector-borne diseases have a considerable economic impact worldwide and affect health of humans and animals. However, different aspects of their epidemiology and their pathogenesis remain unclear. Despite the frequent description of clinical cases reported by practitioners attending cattle from Madrid, Central Spain, molecular prevalence of Anaplasma spp. and Babesia spp. has not been described. The aim of this study was to assess the positivity rate of A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. centrale, B. bigemina and B. divergens in livestock of this area and to evaluate the existence of associations between these pathogens and haematological, biochemical and epidemiological data. Babesia divergens and A. phagocytophilum were detected for the first time in cattle from Madrid. Their positivity percentages were low (2.2% ± 1.4% and 1.8% ± 1.2%, respectively), but this description is of special interest, as these agents are potentially zoonotic. Both agents were found in areas of higher altitude and relative humidity and lower temperature. The detection of ticks in livestock during the moment of sampling was confirmed as a risk factor for these infections. Anaplasma marginale showed the highest molecular infection rate (30% ± 4.1%) in this study, followed by B. bigemina (21.9% ± 3.7%). Higher positivity rates of A. marginale and B. bigemina were found in the areas of mountain climate and warm-summer continental Mediterranean climate. The use of ectoparasiticide treatment was found as a risk factor for infection by A. marginale and B. bigemina. This finding could lead to reconsider the ectoparasiticide protocols that are used nowadays. Grazing on pastures with domestic or wild ruminants and the presence of wild carnivores were associated with higher rates of infection by these four agents and coinfections were frequently found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia Calleja-Bueno
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ángel Sainz
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercedes García-Sancho
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan V González-Martín
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Díaz-Regañón
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando Rodríguez-Franco
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatriz Agulla
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Bárbara Tormo
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alejandra Villaescusa
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Severe Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens Concomitant Infection in Imported Captive Reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus). MACEDONIAN VETERINARY REVIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/macvetrev-2020-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases are highly prevalent in domestic and wild ruminants and they may be distributed in wide geographical ranges by animal transportation. The aim of the current study was to investigate the presence of European strains of Babesia spp. and/or Anaplasma spp. in oversea imported reindeer specimens. Imported specimens (n=7) were hospitalized with visible tick infestation (Ixodes ricinus) and signs of cachexia, anemia, and hemoglobinuria. Using blood smears, PCR, and BLAST comparisons, it was confirmed that the animals were infected with a French strain of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia divergens which is considered to be absent in the USA. We conclude that oversea importation of reindeers must be followed with a routine check for geographically-specific strains of pathogens from the place of origin. This monitoring process must be dynamic and according to recent reports of tick-borne pathogens.
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Silaghi C, Nieder M, Sauter-Louis C, Knubben-Schweizer G, Pfister K, Pfeffer M. Epidemiology, genetic variants and clinical course of natural infections with Anaplasma phagocytophilum in a dairy cattle herd. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:20. [PMID: 29310697 PMCID: PMC5759301 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2570-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Anaplasma phagocytophilum is an obligate intracellular, tick-transmitted bacterium that causes granulocytic anaplasmosis in humans and several mammalian species including domestic ruminants where it is called tick-borne fever (TBF). Different genetic variants exist but their impact with regard to putative differences in host associations and pathogenicity are not yet completely understood. Methods Natural infections with A. phagocytophilum in a dairy cattle herd in Germany were investigated over one pasture season by using serology, haematology, blood chemistry and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Sequence analysis of partial 16S rRNA, groEL, msp2 and msp4 genes of A. phagocytophilum was carried out in order to trace possible genetic variants and their relations between cattle, roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and ticks (Ixodes ricinus) in this area. Results In total 533 samples from 58 cattle, 310 ticks, three roe deer and one wild boar were examined. Our results show (i) typical clinical symptoms of TBF in first-time infected heifers, such as high fever, reduced milk yield, lower limb oedema and typical haematological and biochemical findings such as severe leukopenia, erythropenia, neutropenia, lymphocytopenia, monocytopenia, a significant increase in creatinine and bilirubin and a significant decrease in serum albumin, γ-GT, GLDH, magnesium and calcium; (ii) a high overall prevalence of A. phagocytophilum infections in this herd as 78.9% (15/19) of the naïve heifers were real-time PCR-positive and 75.9% (44/58) of the entire herd seroconverted; and (iii) a high level of sequence variation in the analysed genes with five variants of the 16S rRNA gene, two variants of the groEL gene, three variants of the msp2 gene and four variants in the msp4 gene with certain combinations of these variants. Conclusions In cattle particular combinations of the genetic variants of A. phagocytophilum occurred, whereas three roe deer showed different variants altogether. This is indicative for a sympatric circulation of variants in this small geographical region (< 1 km2). Both re- and superinfections with A. phagocytophilum were observed in five cattle showing that infection does not result in sterile immunity. For prevention of clinical cases we suggest pasturing of young, not pregnant heifers to reduce economical losses. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-017-2570-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Silaghi
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Present Address: Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Riems, Germany
| | - Marion Nieder
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Carola Sauter-Louis
- Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services at the Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany.,Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Riems, Germany
| | - Gabriela Knubben-Schweizer
- Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services at the Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Kurt Pfister
- Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Martin Pfeffer
- Institute for Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
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Chastagner A, Pion A, Verheyden H, Lourtet B, Cargnelutti B, Picot D, Poux V, Bard É, Plantard O, McCoy KD, Leblond A, Vourc'h G, Bailly X. Host specificity, pathogen exposure, and superinfections impact the distribution of Anaplasma phagocytophilum genotypes in ticks, roe deer, and livestock in a fragmented agricultural landscape. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2017; 55:31-44. [PMID: 28807858 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a bacterial pathogen mainly transmitted by Ixodes ricinus ticks in Europe. It infects wild mammals, livestock, and, occasionally, humans. Roe deer are considered to be the major reservoir, but the genotypes they carry differ from those that are found in livestock and humans. Here, we investigated whether roe deer were the main source of the A. phagocytophilum genotypes circulating in questing I. ricinus nymphs in a fragmented agricultural landscape in France. First, we assessed pathogen prevalence in 1837 I. ricinus nymphs (sampled along georeferenced transects) and 79 roe deer. Prevalence was dramatically different between ticks and roe deer: 1.9% versus 76%, respectively. Second, using high-throughput amplicon sequencing, we characterized the diversity of the A. phagocytophilum genotypes found in 22 infected ticks and 60 infected roe deer; the aim was to determine the frequency of co-infections. Only 22.7% of infected ticks carried genotypes associated with roe deer. This finding fits with others suggesting that cattle density is the major factor explaining infected tick density. To explore epidemiological scenarios capable of explaining these patterns, we constructed compartmental models that focused on how A. phagocytophilum exposure and infection dynamics affected pathogen prevalence in roe deer. At the exposure levels predicted by the results of this study and the literature, the high prevalence in roe deer was only seen in the model in which superinfections could occur during all infection phases and when the probability of infection post exposure was above 0.43. We then interpreted these results from the perspective of livestock and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amélie Chastagner
- EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidémiologie des maladies Animales et zoonotiques, INRA, VetAgroSup, Route de Theix, F-63122 Saint Genes Champanelle, France; Evolutionary Ecology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Angélique Pion
- EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidémiologie des maladies Animales et zoonotiques, INRA, VetAgroSup, Route de Theix, F-63122 Saint Genes Champanelle, France
| | - Hélène Verheyden
- CEFS, UR0035, Comportement et Ecologie de la Faune Sauvage, Université de Toulouse, INRA, 24 chemin de Borde-Rouge, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Bruno Lourtet
- CEFS, UR0035, Comportement et Ecologie de la Faune Sauvage, Université de Toulouse, INRA, 24 chemin de Borde-Rouge, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Bruno Cargnelutti
- CEFS, UR0035, Comportement et Ecologie de la Faune Sauvage, Université de Toulouse, INRA, 24 chemin de Borde-Rouge, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Denis Picot
- CEFS, UR0035, Comportement et Ecologie de la Faune Sauvage, Université de Toulouse, INRA, 24 chemin de Borde-Rouge, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Valérie Poux
- EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidémiologie des maladies Animales et zoonotiques, INRA, VetAgroSup, Route de Theix, F-63122 Saint Genes Champanelle, France
| | - Émilie Bard
- EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidémiologie des maladies Animales et zoonotiques, INRA, VetAgroSup, Route de Theix, F-63122 Saint Genes Champanelle, France
| | - Olivier Plantard
- BIOEPAR, UMR 1300, Biologie, Epidemiologie et Analyse de Risque, INRA, UNAM Université, Oniris, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire, Agroalimentaire et de l'Alimentation Nantes-Atlantique, Atlanpôle, la Chantrerie, F-44307, Nantes, France
| | - Karen D McCoy
- MIVEGEC (UMR 5290), Maladie Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique Evolution et Contrôle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Montpellier, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (UR224), 911 Avenue d'Agropolis, BP 64501, F-34394 Cedex 5, Montpellier, France
| | - Agnes Leblond
- EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidémiologie des maladies Animales et zoonotiques, INRA, VetAgroSup, Route de Theix, F-63122 Saint Genes Champanelle, France
| | - Gwenaël Vourc'h
- EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidémiologie des maladies Animales et zoonotiques, INRA, VetAgroSup, Route de Theix, F-63122 Saint Genes Champanelle, France
| | - Xavier Bailly
- EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidémiologie des maladies Animales et zoonotiques, INRA, VetAgroSup, Route de Theix, F-63122 Saint Genes Champanelle, France.
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Aktas M, Özübek S. Bovine anaplasmosis in Turkey: First laboratory confirmed clinical cases caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Vet Microbiol 2015; 178:246-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Revised: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Belkahia H, Ben Said M, Alberti A, Abdi K, Issaoui Z, Hattab D, Gharbi M, Messadi L. First molecular survey and novel genetic variants' identification of Anaplasma marginale, A. centrale and A. bovis in cattle from Tunisia. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2015; 34:361-71. [PMID: 26117444 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Few data are available about the presence and distribution of Anaplasma species in cattle in North African countries. In this study prevalence, co-infections, risk factors and genetic diversity of Anaplasma species were evaluated in bovines from Northern Tunisia. A total of 232 cattle from 36 randomly selected farms in three Tunisian localities were investigated for the presence of Anaplasma species in blood by Real-time PCR and/or nested PCR. Overall infection rates of Anaplasma spp., Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma centrale and Anaplasma bovis were 34.9%, 25.4%, 15.1%, and 3.9%, respectively. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was not detected in cattle. The most common co-infection pattern was an association of A. marginale and A. centrale (11.2%). Five cattle (2.1%) all reared in the sub-humid bioclimatic area, were co-infected by the three Anaplasma species. Molecular prevalence of Anaplasma infection varied significantly according to locality, bioclimatic area, tick infestation and type of breeding. Animals of the Holstein breed were less infected by A. marginale and A. centrale than other breeds. Genetic analysis of A. marginale msp4 gene indicated a high sequence diversity of Tunisian strains, suggesting a multiple introduction of infected cattle from different origins. Phylogenetic studies based on the 16S rRNA gene showed that the most prevalent A. centrale strains were closely related to the A. centrale vaccine strain. Moreover, all A. bovis variants clustered with other A. bovis sequences obtained from domestic and wild ruminant strains. This is the first molecular investigation on Anaplasma species in Tunisian cattle providing pivotal background for designing epidemiological studies and to develop control strategies in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanène Belkahia
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de La Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia; Faculté des Sciences de Bizerte, Université de Carthage, 7021 Jarzouna, Tunisia
| | - Mourad Ben Said
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de La Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Alberto Alberti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Khaoula Abdi
- Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Valorisation des Bio-Géo Ressources, Institut Supérieur de Biotechnologie de Sidi Thabet, Université de La Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Zakia Issaoui
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de La Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Dorra Hattab
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de La Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Mohamed Gharbi
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de La Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Lilia Messadi
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de La Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia.
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Ait Lbacha H, Alali S, Zouagui Z, El Mamoun L, Rhalem A, Petit E, Haddad N, Gandoin C, Boulouis HJ, Maillard R. High Prevalence of Anaplasma spp. in Small Ruminants in Morocco. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015; 64:250-263. [PMID: 25916245 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of infection by Anaplasma spp. (including Anaplasma phagocytophilum) was determined using blood smear microscopy and PCR through screening of small ruminant blood samples collected from seven regions of Morocco. Co-infections of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp, Theileria spp. and Mycoplasma spp. were investigated and risk factors for Anaplasma spp. infection assessed. A total of 422 small ruminant blood samples were randomly collected from 70 flocks. Individual animal (breed, age, tick burden and previous treatment) and flock data (GPS coordinate of farm, size of flock and livestock production system) were collected. Upon examination of blood smears, 375 blood samples (88.9%) were found to contain Anaplasma-like erythrocytic inclusion bodies. Upon screening with a large spectrum PCR targeting the Anaplasma 16S rRNA region, 303 (71%) samples were found to be positive. All 303 samples screened with the A. phagocytophilum-specific PCR, which targets the msp2 region, were found to be negative. Differences in prevalence were found to be statistically significant with regard to region, altitude, flock size, livestock production system, grazing system, presence of clinical cases and application of tick and tick-borne diseases prophylactic measures. Kappa analysis revealed a poor concordance between microscopy and PCR (k = 0.14). Agreement with PCR is improved by considering microscopy and packed cell volume (PCV) in parallel. The prevalence of double infections was found to be 1.7, 2.5 and 24% for Anaplasma-Babesia, Anaplasma-Mycoplasma and Anaplasma-Theileria, respectively. Co-infection with three or more haemoparasites was found in 1.6% of animals examined. In conclusion, we demonstrate the high burden of anaplasmosis in small ruminants in Morocco and the high prevalence of co-infections of tick-borne diseases. There is an urgent need to improve the control of this neglected group of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Ait Lbacha
- Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - S Alali
- Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Z Zouagui
- Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - L El Mamoun
- Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - A Rhalem
- Institut Agronomique et Vétérinaire Hassan II, Rabat, Morocco
| | - E Petit
- Anses, ENVA, INRA, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - N Haddad
- Anses, ENVA, INRA, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - C Gandoin
- Anses, ENVA, INRA, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - H-J Boulouis
- Anses, ENVA, INRA, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - R Maillard
- Anses, ENVA, INRA, BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France.,INP-ENVT, Toulouse, France
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Stuen S, Granquist EG, Silaghi C. Anaplasma phagocytophilum--a widespread multi-host pathogen with highly adaptive strategies. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:31. [PMID: 23885337 PMCID: PMC3717505 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 354] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum has for decades been known to cause the disease tick-borne fever (TBF) in domestic ruminants in Ixodes ricinus-infested areas in northern Europe. In recent years, the bacterium has been found associated with Ixodes-tick species more or less worldwide on the northern hemisphere. A. phagocytophilum has a broad host range and may cause severe disease in several mammalian species, including humans. However, the clinical symptoms vary from subclinical to fatal conditions, and considerable underreporting of clinical incidents is suspected in both human and veterinary medicine. Several variants of A. phagocytophilum have been genetically characterized. Identification and stratification into phylogenetic subfamilies has been based on cell culturing, experimental infections, PCR, and sequencing techniques. However, few genome sequences have been completed so far, thus observations on biological, ecological, and pathological differences between genotypes of the bacterium, have yet to be elucidated by molecular and experimental infection studies. The natural transmission cycles of various A. phagocytophilum variants, the involvement of their respective hosts and vectors involved, in particular the zoonotic potential, have to be unraveled. A. phagocytophilum is able to persist between seasons of tick activity in several mammalian species and movement of hosts and infected ticks on migrating animals or birds may spread the bacterium. In the present review, we focus on the ecology and epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum, especially the role of wildlife in contribution to the spread and sustainability of the infection in domestic livestock and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snorre Stuen
- Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science Sandnes, Norway.
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