Mu-opioid receptors are involved in the tolerance to nicotine antinociception

Ecological momentary assessment of cigarette smoking behavior and pain intensity among individuals with chronic back pain who smoke

Chronic pain affects ∼20% of the adult population and is associated with smoking. Smoking and pain worsen each other in the long term, but short-term temporal associations between smoking and pain throughout the day are unclear. Understanding these relationships may inform strategies for managing comorbid smoking and pain. Participants with chronic back pain who smoke responded to 81.5% of ecological momentary assessment (EMA) prompts delivered 5 times daily. Independent variables were: 1) urge to smoke (from 1-9), 2) intention to smoke (about to smoke, not about to smoke), and 3) smoking recency (smoked <30 min ago, smoked >30 min ago); smoking now was included as a separate category in models 2 and 3. Associations with pain intensity (from 1-9) were estimated using multi-level models, including an interaction term between the independent variable and Pain and Smoking Inventory score (PSI). Urge to smoke was associated with increased pain intensity (β=0.10 [SE=0.02], p<0.001), and this difference was greater for individuals with higher PSI scores (β=0.03 [0.01], p=0.003). Not being about to smoke was associated with lower pain intensity than smoking now (β=-0.29 [0.09], p=0.001). Compared to smoking now, both smoking <30 min ago (β=-0.30 [0.09], p=0.001) and smoking >30 min ago (β=-0.23 [0.11], p=0.029) were associated with lower pain intensity. Smoking urges may increase pain intensity (or vice versa), especially when people perceive strong relationships between smoking and pain. Smoking may also attenuate perceived pain. Further research is needed on interventions that combine tailored smoking cessation treatments and behavioral pain management strategies. PERSPECTIVE: This analysis of momentary data reported throughout the day by people with back pain who smoke revealed novel insights into short-term relationships between pain and smoking. Study results can inform future treatment development for individuals with chronic pain who smoke.

Nicotine and opioid co-dependence: Findings from bench research to clinical trials

Concomitant use of tobacco and opioids represents a growing public health concern. In fact, the mortality rate due to smoking-related illness approaches 50% among SUD patients. Cumulative evidence demonstrates that the vulnerability to drugs of abuse is influenced by behavioral, environmental, and genetic factors. This review explores the contribution of genetics and neural mechanisms influencing nicotine and opioid reward, respiration, and antinociception, emphasizing the interaction of cholinergic and opioid receptor systems. Despite the substantial evidence demonstrating nicotine-opioid interactions within the brain and on behavior, the currently available pharmacotherapies targeting these systems have shown limited efficacy for smoking cessation on opioid-maintained smokers. Thus, further studies designed to identify novel targets modulating both nicotinic and opioid receptor systems may lead to more efficacious approaches for co-morbid nicotine dependence and opioid use disorder.

The impact of adolescent nicotine exposure on alcohol use during adulthood: The role of neuropeptides

Nicotine and alcohol abuse and co-dependence represent major public health crises. Indeed, previous research has shown that the prevalence of alcoholism is higher in smokers than in non-smokers. Adolescence is a susceptible period of life for the initiation of nicotine and alcohol use and the development of nicotine-alcohol codependence. However, there is a limited number of pharmacotherapeutic agents to treat addiction to nicotine or alcohol alone. Notably, there is no effective medication to treat this comorbid disorder. This chapter aims to review the early nicotine use and its impact on subsequent alcohol abuse during adolescence and adulthood as well as the role of neuropeptides in this comorbid disorder. The preclinical and clinical findings discussed in this chapter will advance our understanding of this comorbid disorder's neurobiology and lay a foundation for developing novel pharmacotherapies to treat nicotine and alcohol codependence.

Smoking Is Associated with Pain in All Body Regions, with Greatest Influence on Spinal Pain

OBJECTIVE

Examine the interrelationship between smoking and pain in the US population.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional population-based study.

SETTING

Nationwide survey.

METHODS

Comprehensive pain reports categorically defined as head, spine, trunk, and limb pain; smoking history; demographics; medical history from a total of 2,307 subjects from the 2003-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey obtained from the Centers for Disease Control were analyzed. Unpaired t tests were used to analyze independent continuous variables, and chi-square tests were used to analyze categorical variables between smoker and nonsmoker groups. Weighted multivariate logistic regression analyses determined the association of current smoking with the presence of pain in various body regions.

RESULTS

Smoking is most strongly associated with spine pain (odds ratio [OR] = 2.89, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.21-3.77), followed by headache (OR = 2.47, 95% CI = 1.73-3.53), trunk pain (OR = 2.17, 95% CI = 1.45-2.74), and limb pain (OR = 1.99, 95% CI = 1.45-2.73).

CONCLUSIONS

Current smoking is associated with pain in every region of the body. This association is strongest for spine and head pain. Given that pain is a strong motivator and that current smoking was associated with pain in all body regions, we recommend that these results be used to further raise public awareness about the potential harms of smoking.

Predictors of severe postoperative pain after orthopedic surgery in the immediate postoperative period

AIM

Severe pain in the immediate postoperative period can negatively affect patients' quality of recovery, prolong hospital stay, and increase the risk of developing persistent pain. This study aimed to examine the predictors of severe postoperative pain in the immediate postoperative period among orthopedic trauma patients.

METHODS

A prospective observational study design was used. Data were collected from 153 patients that underwent orthopedic surgery procedures. Pain scores were assessed by a numeric pain scale at 45 min in the Post Anesthesia Care Unit. Physical health status was measured by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Status Classification System, and total dose of opioids (converted to morphine equivalents) and other demographic and clinical characteristics were recorded from medical records.

RESULTS

Preoperative smoking and physical health status were statistically significant predictors of severe postoperative pain in the immediate postoperative period. The odds of severe postoperative pain for smokers were 2.42 times the odds of nonsmokers. Patients with severe systemic disease showed 4.27 times lower odds of severe pain than more healthy patients.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative predictors of severe postoperative pain should be considered when assessing and treating orthopedic patients postoperatively to assure adequate pain relief.

Smoking has a dose-dependent effect on the incidence of preoperative opioid consumption in female geriatric patients with spine disease

Tobacco use and narcotic medication have been associated with worse functional outcomes after surgery. Our goal was to investigate potential associations between smoking and preoperative opioid consumption in a geriatric population undergoing spine surgery, and their impact on postoperative outcomes. The records of 536 consecutive patients aged more than 65 years who underwent elective spinal surgery between November 2014 and August 2017 at a single institution were reviewed. Primary outcomes included rates of preoperative opioid consumption and postoperative hospital length of stay and complications. Males were more likely to be smokers than females (p < 0.001), whereas females were more likely to take opioid analgesics preoperatively (p = 0.022). Women with a history of smoking were more likely to have increased preoperative opioid consumption compared to those with no history of smoking (63.64% vs. 42.04%; p < 0.001). Such a relationship was not found in men. Subgroups analysis of female patients with a history of tobacco use comparing current and former smoker status showed that both groups exhibited increased preoperative opioid consumption compared to patients who never smoked (88.89% vs 42.04%; p < 0.001 for current users; 59.42% vs 42.04% for former users; p = 0.008). There was also a dose-depended relationship between smoking and increased preoperative opioid consumption. Geriatric female spine patients with a history of smoking have a higher incidence of preoperative opioid consumption. Opioid intake appears to increase with the number of pack-years, both in patients with a history of smoking and in those who currently smoke.

Nicotine and Opioids: a Call for Co-treatment as the Standard of Care

The U.S. is in the midst of an opioid epidemic. At the same time, tobacco use remains the leading cause of preventable death and disability. While the shared biological underpinnings of nicotine and opioid addiction are well established, clinical implications for co-treatment of these two substance use disorders has not been emphasized in the literature, nor have researchers, clinicians, and policy makers adequately outlined pathways for incorporating co-treatment into existing clinical workflows. The current brief review characterizes the metabolic and neural mechanisms which mediate co-use of nicotine and opioids, and then outlines clinical and policy implications for concurrently addressing these two deadly epidemics. Screening, assessment, medication-assisted treatment (MAT), and tobacco-free policy are discussed. The evidence suggests that clinical care and policies that facilitate co-treatment are an expedient means of delivering healthcare to individuals that result in better health for the population while also meeting patients' substance abuse disorder recovery goals.

Nicotine Gateway Effects on Adolescent Substance Use

Given the rise in teenage use of electronic nicotine delivery systems ("vaping") in congruence with the increasing numbers of drug-related emergencies, it is critical to expand the knowledge of the physical and behavioral risks associated with developmental nicotine exposure. A further understanding of the molecular and neurochemical underpinnings of nicotine's gateway effects allows emergency clinicians to advise patients and families and adjust treatment accordingly, which may minimize the use of tobacco, nicotine, and future substances. Currently, the growing use of tobacco products and electronic cigarettes among teenagers represents a major public health concern. Adolescent exposure to tobacco or nicotine can lead to subsequent abuse of nicotine and other substances, which is known as the gateway hypothesis. Adolescence is a developmentally sensitive time period when risk-taking behaviors, such as sensation seeking and drug experimentation, often begin. These hallmark behaviors of adolescence are largely due to maturational changes in the brain. The developing brain is particularly vulnerable to the harmful effects of drugs of abuse, including tobacco and nicotine products, which activate nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Disruption of nAChR development with early nicotine use may influence the function and pharmacology of the receptor subunits and alter the release of reward-related neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, dopamine, GABA, serotonin, and glutamate. In this review, we emphasize that the effects of nicotine are highly dependent on timing of exposure, with a dynamic interaction of nAChRs with dopaminergic, endocannabinoid, and opioidergic systems to enhance general drug reward and reinforcement. We analyzed available literature regarding adolescent substance use and nicotine's impact on the developing brain and behavior using the electronic databases of PubMed and Google Scholar for articles published in English between January 1968 and November 2018. We present a large collection of clinical and preclinical evidence that adolescent nicotine exposure influences long-term molecular, biochemical, and functional changes in the brain that encourage subsequent drug abuse.

Tobacco Smoking and Brain Endogenous Opioid Release: More Than Nicotine Alone

INTRODUCTION

The effects of smoking denicotinized (denic) and average nicotine (avnic) tobacco cigarettes were studied on brain mu opioid receptor binding by positron emission tomography with 11C carfentanil. The results indicated the importance of physiological and psychological effects induced by denic smoking.

METHODS

Regional mu opioid binding potential (nondisplaceable binding potential, BPND) was measured in 20 adult male overnight abstinent chronic tobacco smokers. The denic sessions were conducted about 8:00 am followed by avnic sessions about 2 hours later. Venous plasma nicotine levels and scores of craving to smoke were assessed before and after each smoking session. Fagerstrom scores of nicotine dependence were determined. Pearson's and Spearman's correlation tests were used to examine associations between BPND and other smoking parameters.

RESULTS

Surprisingly, the very low plasma nicotine peak levels after denic smoking (mean ± SD: 3.3 ± 1.8 ng/mL) were significantly correlated with BPND after denic and avnic smoking. Equally surprising no association was found between nicotine levels after avnic smoking and BPND. Delta craving scores and Fagerstrom scores were correlated with both BPND after denic and avnic in several brain regions.

CONCLUSIONS

Very small amounts of nicotine, psychological and behavioral effects of denic smoking appear to have important actions on the endogenous mu opioid system.

IMPLICATIONS

Associations between very low venous plasma nicotine levels after denic smoking and regional brain mu opioid receptor availability are a surprising "placebo" effect. Delta craving and Fagerstrom scores were correlated with BPND in several brain regions including amygdala, hippocampus, insula, nucleus accumbens, putamen, and ventral striatum. This study is limited by modest Power (mean 1 - β = 0.6) for all correlation analyses.

Influence of neuropathic pain on nicotinic acetylcholine receptor plasticity and behavioral responses to nicotine in rats

Tobacco smoking is particularly evident in individuals experiencing chronic pain. This complex relationship is poorly understood at both molecular and behavioral levels. Here, we describe experiments aimed at understanding whether a chronic pain state induces neuroadaptations into the brain or peripheral nerves that involve nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and whether these neuroadaptations directly lead to increased vulnerability to nicotine addiction or to the development of coping strategies to relieve pain symptoms. We found that ligation of the rat L5 spinal nerve led to a dramatic downregulation in the mRNA expression levels of all nAChR subunits examined in dorsal root ganglia and a time-dependent downregulation of discrete subunits, particularly in the cingulate cortex and the amygdala. Spinal nerve ligation and sham-operated rats showed minor or no changes in patterns of acquisition and motivation for nicotine taking. Spinal nerve ligation rats also showed similar vulnerability to nicotine seeking as sham animals when reinstatement was induced by nicotine-associated cues, but failed to reinstate lever pressing when relapse was induced by nicotine priming. Spinal nerve ligation and sham rats were equally sensitive to nicotine-induced anxiety-like behavior and antinociception; however, nicotine produced a potent and long-lasting antiallodynic effect in spinal nerve ligation rats. These results demonstrate that chronic pain leads to plasticity of nAChRs that do not directly facilitate nicotine addictive behaviors. Instead, nicotine potently decreases allodynia, an effect that could lead to increased nicotine consumption in chronic pain subjects.

Understanding the Opioid Epidemic: Factors Predictive of Inpatient and Postdischarge Prescription Opioid Use After Orthopaedic Trauma

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine which factors influence inpatient and postdischarge opioid use after orthopaedic trauma.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Single Level 1 trauma center.

PARTICIPANTS

The study included 235 adult trauma patients treated operatively for fracture with minimum 1 overnight hospital stay.

INTERVENTION

Operative fracture management.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENT

Total opioid pain medication use, in oral morphine equivalents, in inpatient and postdischarge settings.

RESULTS

Controlling for length of stay, inpatient opioid use was negatively correlated with age and positively correlated with Injury Severity Score, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, and baseline tobacco use (P < 0.0001, adjusted R = 0.274). Discharge opioid prescription amount was negatively correlated with age, the presence of a complication, and ICU admission and positively correlated with inpatient opioid use (P < 0.0001, adjusted R = 0.201). Postdischarge opioid use was associated with larger amounts of opioids prescribed at discharge, a patient history of alcohol use at baseline, and ICU admission (P < 0.0001, R = 0.123).

CONCLUSION

Nonmodifiable factors accounted for the level of inpatient opioid use in a trauma population. Higher inpatient use predicts larger opioid prescriptions at discharge, whereas larger discharge prescription predicts greater postdischarge opioid use. Strategies to reduce postdischarge opioid use should begin with reductions in inpatient opioid use. Multimodal pain strategies may be needed to achieve this goal.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Traumatic Orthopaedic Injury Is Not an Independent Risk Factor for High Postdischarge Opioid Consumption

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to quantify how opioid use in patients with traumatic injury compared with opioid use in patients undergoing elective arthroplasty.

METHODS

In a retrospective review, 235 adult trauma patients treated surgically for fracture were compared with 98 patients undergoing elective total hip or knee arthroplasty. Inpatient, discharge, and postdischarge opioid use were recorded in oral morphine equivalents (OMEs).

RESULTS

There were no differences between trauma and elective arthroplasty patients for inpatient opioid use (OME/day: 70.2 vs. 67.3; P = 0.53), discharge prescription (OME: 542 vs. 594; P = 0.13), or postdischarge opioid use (OME: 986 vs. 1,147; P = 0.29). Postdischarge opioid use was positively correlated with Caucasian race, intensive care unit admission, baseline alcohol or opioid use, and higher discharge prescriptions (P < 0.0001; adjusted R2 = 0.127). Discharge prescription amount was the most significant predictor.

DISCUSSION

Traumatic injury is not a predictor of high post-discharge opioid use. Demographic, social, and physician prescribing behaviors contribute to higher postdischarge opioid consumption.

Endogenous opioid system: a promising target for future smoking cessation medications

BACKGROUND

Nicotine addiction continues to be a health challenge across the world. Despite several approved medications, smokers continue to relapse. Several human and animal studies have evaluated the role of the endogenous opioid system as a potential target for smoking cessation medications.

METHODS

In this review, studies that have elucidated the role of the mu (MORs), delta (DORs), and kappa (KORs) opioid receptors in nicotine reward, nicotine withdrawal, and reinstatement of nicotine seeking will be discussed. Additionally, the review will discuss discrepancies in the literature and therapeutic potential of the endogenous opioid system, and suggest studies to address gaps in knowledge with respect to the role of the opioid receptors in nicotine dependence.

RESULTS

Data available till date suggest that blockade of the MORs and DORs decreased the rewarding effects of nicotine, while activation of the MORs and DORs decreased nicotine withdrawal-induced aversive effects. In contrast, activation of the KORs decreased the rewarding effects of nicotine, while blockade of the KORs decreased nicotine withdrawal-induced aversive effects. Interestingly, blockade of the MORs and KORs attenuated reinstatement of nicotine seeking. In humans, MOR antagonists have shown benefits in select subpopulations of smokers and further investigation is required to realize their full therapeutic potential.

CONCLUSION

Future work must assess the influence of polymorphisms in opioid receptor-linked genes in nicotine dependence, which will help in both identifying individuals vulnerable to nicotine addiction and the development of opioid-based smoking cessation medications. Overall, the endogenous opioid system continues to be a promising target for future smoking cessation medications.

Smoking history, nicotine dependence and opioid use in patients with chronic non-malignant pain

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated a positive association between smoking and addiction to opioids in patients with chronic non-malignant pain. This could be explained by a susceptibility in some patients to develop addiction. Another explanation could be that nicotine influences both pain and the opioid system. The objective of the study was to investigate whether smoking, former smoking ± nicotine use and nicotine dependence in patients with chronic non-malignant pain were associated with opioid use and addiction to opioids.

METHODS

The study was a cross-sectional study carried out at a multidisciplinary Danish pain centre. All patients aged 18 or more in treatment at the pain centre on the 1st of September 2013 were invited to participate in the study.

RESULTS

A total of 98 patients (65%) participated in the study. The prevalence of current smokers was twice as high as in the general population. The prevalence of patients using opioids was 54% and the prevalence of addiction to opioids was 6%. No significant differences in addiction were found between the different smoking groups, but smokers and former smokers using nicotine tended to use opioids more frequently and at higher doses than never smokers and former smokers not using nicotine.

CONCLUSIONS

The study supports previous evidence that smoking is associated with chronic pain. Our data suggest that information about use of nicotine substitution in chronic non-malignant patients are relevant both in a clinical setting, but also in future studies of the association between smoking habits, pain and opioid use.

Nicotine-specific and non-specific effects of cigarette smoking on endogenous opioid mechanisms

This study investigates differences in μ-opioid receptor mediated neurotransmission in healthy controls and overnight-abstinent smokers, and potential effects of the OPRM1 A118G genotype. It also examines the effects of smoking denicotinized (DN) and average nicotine (N) cigarettes on the μ-opioid system. Positron emission tomography with (11)C-carfentanil was used to determine regional brain μ-opioid receptor (MOR) availability (non-displaceable binding potential, BPND) in a sample of 19 male smokers and 22 nonsmoking control subjects. Nonsmokers showed greater MOR BPND than overnight abstinent smokers in the basal ganglia and thalamus. BPND in the basal ganglia was negatively correlated with baseline craving levels and Fagerström scores. Interactions between group and genotype were seen in the nucleus accumbens bilaterally and the amygdala, with G-allele carriers demonstrating lower BPND in these regions, but only among smokers. After smoking the DN cigarette, smokers showed evidence of MOR activation in the thalamus and nucleus accumbens. No additional activation was observed after the N cigarette, with a mean effect of increases in MOR BPND (i.e., deactivation) with respect to the DN cigarette effects in the thalamus and left amygdala. Changes in MOR BPND were related to both Fagerström scores and changes in craving. This study showed that overnight-abstinent smokers have lower concentrations of available MORs than controls, an effect that was related to both craving and the severity of addiction. It also suggests that nicotine non-specific elements of the smoking experience have an important role in regulating MOR-mediated neurotransmission, and in turn modulating withdrawal-induced craving ratings.

The opioid receptors as targets for drug abuse medication

The endogenous opioid system is largely expressed in the brain, and both endogenous opioid peptides and receptors are present in areas associated with reward and motivation. It is well known that this endogenous system plays a key role in many aspects of addictive behaviours. The present review summarizes the modifications of the opioid system induced by chronic treatment with drugs of abuse reported in preclinical and clinical studies, as well as the action of opioid antagonists and agonists on the reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse, with therapeutic perspectives. We have focused on the effects of chronic psychostimulants, alcohol and nicotine exposure. Taken together, the changes in both opioid peptides and opioid receptors in different brain structures following acute or chronic exposure to these drugs of abuse clearly identify the opioid system as a potential target for the development of effective pharmacotherapy for the treatment of addiction and the prevention of relapse.

Regional brain [(11)C]carfentanil binding following tobacco smoking

OBJECTIVE

To determine if overnight tobacco abstinent carriers of the AG or GG (*G) vs. the AA variant of the human mu opioid receptor (OPRM1) A118G polymorphism (rs1799971) differ in [(11)C]carfentanil binding after tobacco smoking.

METHODS

Twenty healthy American male smokers who abstained from tobacco overnight were genotyped and completed positron emission tomography (PET) scans with the mu opioid receptor agonist, [(11)C]carfentanil. They smoked deniconized (denic) and average nicotine (avnic) cigarettes during the PET scans.

RESULTS

Smoking avnic cigarette decreased the binding potential (BPND) of [(11)C]carfentanil in the right medial prefrontal cortex (mPfc; 6, 56, 18), left anterior medial prefrontal cortex (amPfc; -2, 46, 44), right ventral striatum (vStr; 16, 3, -10), left insula (Ins; -42, 10, -12), right hippocampus (Hippo; 18, -6, -14) and left cerebellum (Cbl; -10, -88, -34), and increased the BPND in left amygdala (Amy; -20, 0, -22), left putamen (Put; -22, 10, -6) and left nucleus accumbens (NAcc; -10, 12, -8). In the AA allele carriers, avnic cigarette smoking significantly changed the BPND compared to after denic smoking in most brain areas listed above. However in the *G carriers the significant BPND changes were confirmed in only amPfc and vStr. Free mu opioid receptor availability was significantly less in the *G than the AA carriers in the Amy and NAcc.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that BPND changes induced by avnic smoking in OPRM1 *G carriers were blunted compared to the AA carriers. Also *G smokers had less free mu opioid receptor availability in Amy and NAcc.

Role of α5-containing nicotinic receptors in neuropathic pain and response to nicotine

Nicotinic receptors in the central nervous system (nAChRs) are known to play important roles in pain processing and modulate behavioral responses to analgesic drugs, including nicotine. The presence of the α5-neuronal nicotinic accessory subunit in the nicotinic receptor complex is increasingly understood to modulate reward and aversive states, addiction, and possibly pathological pain. In the current study, using α5-knockout (KO) mice and subunit-specific antibodies, we assess the role of α5-containing neuronal nicotinic receptors in neuropathic pain and in the analgesic response to nicotine. After chronic constriction injury (CCI) or partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL), no differences in mechanical, heat, or cold hyperalgesia were found in wild-type (WT) versus α5-KO littermate mice. The number of α5-containing nAChRs was decreased (rather than increased) after CCI in the spinal cord and in the thalamus. Nevertheless, thermal analgesic response to nicotine was marginally reduced in CCI α5-KO mice at 4 days after CCI, but not at later timepoints or after PSNL. Interestingly, upon daily intermittent nicotine injections in unoperated mice, WT animals developed tolerance to nicotine-induced analgesia to a larger extent than α5-KO mice. Our results suggest that α5-containing nAChRs mediate analgesic tolerance to nicotine but do not play a major role in neuropathic pain.

Operant self-administration of alcohol and nicotine in a preclinical model of co-abuse

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES

Alcohol and nicotine are often taken together. In humans, intake of nicotine, via smoked tobacco, increases alcohol drinking, and alcohol increases smoking. Chronic nicotine treatment increases alcohol self-administration (SA) in laboratory animals; the reverse relationship is less clear. Most animal work modeling this has used passive administration, which lacks relevance to human co-abuse. Here, we describe a model based on sequential operant SA of alcohol and nicotine.

METHODS

Animals are first trained on alcohol SA (0.19 ml of 12 % alcohol (w/v)/delivery) and then receive separate alcohol (8 %, w/v) and nicotine (15 μg/kg/infusion) SA sessions on the same day ("daily dual access"). Animals then receive access to alcohol and then to nicotine (or in the reverse order) in alternating 5-min periods in 2-h sessions ("alternating access"). We then determine if alternating access modifies the effects of naltrexone on responding for alcohol and nicotine.

RESULTS

We found that with daily dual access, nicotine significantly increased alcohol SA when alcohol access occurred prior to nicotine access and that nicotine SA significantly decreased when the alcohol SA session preceded it. During alternating access, nicotine also significantly increased alcohol intake. Naltrexone (0.3 or 1 mg/kg) significantly reduced alcohol SA during these alternating access sessions in animals that also received nicotine SA, but had minimal effects on animals receiving alcohol SA alone. Naltrexone did not affect nicotine SA under any condition.

CONCLUSIONS

This sequential access procedure effectively models the effects of nicotine on alcohol intake noted in humans.

Association of smoking with μ-opioid receptor availability before and during naltrexone blockade in alcohol-dependent subjects

Persons with a history of alcohol dependence are more likely to use tobacco and to meet criteria for nicotine dependence compared with social drinkers or non-drinkers. The high levels of comorbidity of nicotine and alcohol use and dependence are thought to be related to interactions between nicotinic, opioid and dopamine receptors in mesolimbic regions. The current study examined whether individual differences in regional μ-opioid receptor (MOR) availability were associated with tobacco use, nicotine dependence and level of nicotine craving in 25 alcohol-dependent (AD) subjects. AD subjects completed an inpatient protocol, which included medically supervised alcohol withdrawal, monitored alcohol abstinence, transdermal nicotine maintenance (21 mg/day) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging using the MOR agonist [(11) C]-carfentanil (CFN) before (basal scan) and during treatment with 50 mg/day naltrexone (naltrexone scan). Subjects who had higher scores on the Fagerström Nicotine Dependence Test had significantly lower basal scan binding potential (BPND ) across mesolimbic regions, including the amygdala, cingulate, globus pallidus, thalamus and insula. Likewise, the number of cigarettes per day was negatively associated with basal scan BPND in mesolimbic regions. Higher nicotine craving was significantly associated with lower BPND in amygdala, globus pallidus, putamen, thalamus and ventral striatum. Although blunted during naltrexone treatment, the negative association was maintained for nicotine dependence and cigarettes per day, but not for nicotine craving. These findings suggest that intensity of cigarette smoking and severity of nicotine dependence symptoms are systematically related to reduced BPND across multiple brain regions in AD subjects.

Animal models of nicotine exposure: relevance to second-hand smoking, electronic cigarette use, and compulsive smoking

Much evidence indicates that individuals use tobacco primarily to experience the psychopharmacological properties of nicotine and that a large proportion of smokers eventually become dependent on nicotine. In humans, nicotine acutely produces positive reinforcing effects, including mild euphoria, whereas a nicotine abstinence syndrome with both somatic and affective components is observed after chronic nicotine exposure. Animal models of nicotine self-administration and chronic exposure to nicotine have been critical in unveiling the neurobiological substrates that mediate the acute reinforcing effects of nicotine and emergence of a withdrawal syndrome during abstinence. However, important aspects of the transition from nicotine abuse to nicotine dependence, such as the emergence of increased motivation and compulsive nicotine intake following repeated exposure to the drug, have only recently begun to be modeled in animals. Thus, the neurobiological mechanisms that are involved in these important aspects of nicotine addiction remain largely unknown. In this review, we describe the different animal models available to date and discuss recent advances in animal models of nicotine exposure and nicotine dependence. This review demonstrates that novel animal models of nicotine vapor exposure and escalation of nicotine intake provide a unique opportunity to investigate the neurobiological effects of second-hand nicotine exposure, electronic cigarette use, and the mechanisms that underlie the transition from nicotine use to compulsive nicotine intake.

Smoking Cessation Related to Improved Patient-Reported Pain Scores Following Spinal Care

BACKGROUND

Smoking is associated with low back pain, intervertebral disc disease, inferior patient outcomes following surgical interventions, and increased rates of postoperative complications. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of smoking and smoking cessation on pain and disability in patients with painful spinal disorders.

METHODS

We examined a prospectively maintained database of records for 5333 patients with axial or radicular pain from a spinal disorder with regard to smoking history and the patient assessment of pain on four visual analog scales during the course of care. Confounding factors, including secondary gain, sex, age, and body mass index, were also examined. The mean duration of follow-up was eight months. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed with variables including smoking status, secondary gain status, sex, depression, and age as predictors of pain and disability.

RESULTS

Compared with patients who had never smoked, patients who were current smokers reported significantly greater pain in all visual analog scale pain ratings (p < 0.001). The mean improvement in reported pain over the course of care was significantly different between nonsmokers and current smokers (p <0.001). Compared with patients who had continued to smoke, those who had quit smoking during the course of care reported significantly greater improvement in pain in visual analog scale pain ratings for worst (p = 0.013), current (p < 0.05), and average weekly pain (p = 0.024). The mean improvement in the visual analog scale pain ratings was clinically important in patients in all three groups of nonsmokers. As a group, those who had continued smoking during treatment had no clinically important improvement in reported pain.

CONCLUSIONS

Given a strong association between improved patient-reported pain and smoking cessation, this study supports the need for smoking cessation programs for patients with a painful spinal disorder.

Influence of δ-opioid receptors in the behavioral effects of nicotine

Multiple studies in animal models and humans suggest that the endogenous opioid system is an important neurobiological substrate for nicotine addictive properties. In this study, we evaluated the participation of δ-opioid receptors in different behavioral responses of nicotine by using δ-opioid receptor knockout mice. Acute nicotine administration induced hypolocomotion and antinociception in wild-type mice, which were similar in knockout animals. The development of tolerance to nicotine-induced antinociception was also similar in both genotypes. In agreement, the expression and functional activity of δ-opioid receptors were not modified in the different layers of the spinal cord and brain areas evaluated after chronic nicotine treatment. The somatic manifestation of the nicotine withdrawal syndrome precipitated by mecamylamine was also similar in wild-type and δ-opioid receptor knockout mice. In contrast, nicotine induced a conditioned place preference in wild-type animals that was abolished in knockout mice. Moreover, a lower percentage of acquisition of intravenous nicotine self-administration was observed in mice lacking δ-opioid receptors as well as in wild-type mice treated with the selective δ-opioid receptor antagonist naltrindole. Accordingly, in-vivo microdialysis studies revealed that the enhancement in dopamine extracellular levels induced by nicotine in the nucleus accumbens was reduced in mutant mice. In summary, the present results show that δ-opioid receptors are involved in the modulation of nicotine rewarding effects. However, this opioid receptor does not participate either in several acute effects of nicotine or in the development of tolerance and physical dependence induced by chronic nicotine administration.

A systematic review of the A118G (Asn40Asp) variant of OPRM1 in relation to smoking initiation, nicotine dependence and smoking cessation

Candidate gene studies on smoking behaviors mainly focused on dopaminergic and serotonergic genes, but genes within the µ-opioid system might also be involved. The A118G variant within the OPRM1 gene has been most often examined in relation to smoking, yielding inconsistent findings. It is largely unknown which of the alleles increases susceptibility for smoking behaviors. The aim of this review was to merge findings of OPRM1 gene studies in relation to smoking behaviors and to elaborate on the underlying biological mechanism of the A118G variant. It appeared that A118 was more likely to increase susceptibility to smoking behaviors than 118G, especially with regard to nicotine dependence, but less with smoking initiation and cessation. The proposed functioning of the OPRM1 gene is further explained.

Pain, nicotine, and smoking: research findings and mechanistic considerations

Tobacco addiction and chronic pain represent 2 highly prevalent and comorbid conditions that engender substantial burdens upon individuals and systems. Interrelations between pain and smoking have been of clinical and empirical interest for decades, and research in this area has increased dramatically over the past 5 years. We conceptualize the interaction of pain and smoking as a prototypical example of the biopsychosocial model. Accordingly, we extrapolated from behavioral, cognitive, affective, biomedical, and social perspectives to propose causal mechanisms that may contribute to the observed comorbidity between these 2 conditions. The extant literature was 1st dichotomized into investigations of either effects of smoking on pain or effects of pain on smoking. We then integrated these findings to present a reciprocal model of pain and smoking that is hypothesized to interact in the manner of a positive feedback loop, resulting in greater pain and increased smoking. Finally, we proposed directions for future research and discussed clinical implications for smokers with comorbid pain disorders. We observed modest evidence that smoking may be a risk factor in the multifactorial etiology of some chronically painful conditions and that pain may come to serve as a potent motivator of smoking. We also found that whereas animal studies yielded consistent support for direct pain-inhibitory effects of nicotine and tobacco, results from human studies were much less consistent. Future research in the emerging area of pain and smoking has the potential to inform theoretical and clinical applications with respect to tobacco smoking, chronic pain, and their comorbid presentation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved).

Positive and negative effects of alcohol and nicotine and their interactions: a mechanistic review

Nicotine and alcohol are two of the most commonly abused legal substances. Heavy use of one drug can often lead to, or is predictive of, heavy use of the other drug in adolescents and adults. Heavy drinking and smoking alone are of significant health hazard. The combination of the two, however, can result in synergistic adverse effects particularly in incidences of various cancers (e.g., esophagus). Although detrimental consequences of smoking are well established, nicotine by itself might possess positive and even therapeutic potential. Similarly, alcohol at low or moderated doses may confer beneficial health effects. These opposing findings have generated considerable interest in how these drugs act. Here we will briefly review the negative impact of drinking-smoking co-morbidity followed by factors that appear to contribute to the high rate of co-use of alcohol and nicotine. Our main focus will be on what research is telling us about the central actions and interactions of these drugs, and what has been elucidated about the mechanisms of their positive and negative effects. We will conclude by making suggestions for future research in this area.

Neurobiological mechanisms involved in nicotine dependence and reward: participation of the endogenous opioid system

Nicotine is the primary component of tobacco that maintains the smoking habit and develops addiction. The adaptive changes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors produced by repeated exposure to nicotine play a crucial role in the establishment of dependence. However, other neurochemical systems also participate in the addictive effects of nicotine including glutamate, cannabinoids, GABA and opioids. This review will cover the involvement of these neurotransmitters in nicotine addictive properties, with a special emphasis on the endogenous opioid system. Thus, endogenous enkephalins and beta-endorphins acting on mu-opioid receptors are involved in nicotine-rewarding effects, whereas opioid peptides derived from prodynorphin participate in nicotine aversive responses. An up-regulation of mu-opioid receptors has been reported after chronic nicotine treatment that could counteract the development of nicotine tolerance, whereas the down-regulation induced on kappa-opioid receptors seems to facilitate nicotine tolerance. Endogenous enkephalins acting on mu-opioid receptors also play a role in the development of physical dependence to nicotine. In agreement with these actions of the endogenous opioid system, the opioid antagonist naltrexone has shown to be effective for smoking cessation in certain sub-populations of smokers.

Effect of the selective kappa-opioid receptor antagonist JDTic on nicotine antinociception, reward, and withdrawal in the mouse

RATIONALE

Several lines of evidence support a role for the endogenous opioid system in mediating behaviors associated with drug dependence. Specifically, recent findings suggest that the kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) may play a role in aspects of nicotine dependence, which contribute to relapse and continued tobacco smoking.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to determine the involvement of the KOR in the initial behavioral responses of nicotine, nicotine reward, and nicotine withdrawal using the highly selective KOR antagonist JDTic. JDTic doses of 1, 4, 8, or 16 mg/kg were administered subcutaneously (s.c.) 18 h prior to nicotine treatment.

RESULTS

JDTic dose-dependently blocked acute nicotine-induced antinociception in the tail-flick but not the hot-plate test and did not significantly attenuate morphine's antinociceptive effect in either the tail-flick or hot-plate test. Furthermore, JDTic (8 and 16 mg/kg, s.c.) failed to block the expression of nicotine reward as measured by the conditioned place preference model. In contrast, JDTic and the KOR antagonist norBNI attenuated the expression of both the physical (somatic signs and hyperalgesia) and affective (anxiety-related behavior and conditioned place aversion) nicotine withdrawal signs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings clearly show that the KOR is involved in mediating the withdrawal aspects of nicotine dependence. The results from this study suggest that blockade of the KOR by selective KOR antagonists may be useful smoking cessation pharmacotherapies.

Nicotine: alcohol reward interactions

It is well established that the continued intake of drugs of abuse is reinforcing-that is repeated consumption increases preference. This has been shown in some studies to extend to other drugs of abuse; use of one increases preference for another. In particular, the present review deals with the interaction of nicotine and alcohol as it has been shown that smoking is a risk factor for alcoholism and alcohol use is a risk factor to become a smoker. The review discusses changes in the brain caused by chronic nicotine and chronic alcohol intake to approach the possible mechanisms by which one drug increases the preference for another. Chronic nicotine administration was shown to affect nicotine receptors in the brain, affecting not only receptor levels and distribution, but also receptor subunit composition, thus affecting affinity to nicotine. Other receptor systems are also affected among others catecholamine, glutamate, GABA levels and opiate and cannabinoid receptors. In addition to receptor systems and transmitters, there are endocrine, metabolic and neuropeptide changes as well induced by nicotine. Similarly chronic alcohol intake results in changes in the brain, in multiple receptors, transmitters and peptides as discussed in this overview and also illustrated in the tables. The changes are sex and age-dependent-some changes in males are different from those in females and in general adolescents are more sensitive to drug effects than adults. Although nicotine and alcohol interact-not all the changes induced by the combined intake of both are additive-some are opposing. These opposing effects include those on locomotion, acetylcholine metabolism, nicotine binding, opiate peptides, glutamate transporters and endocannabinoid content among others. The two compounds lower the negative withdrawal symptoms of each other which may contribute to the increase in preference, but the mechanism by which preference increases-most likely consists of multiple components that are not clear at the present time. As the details of induced changes of nicotine and alcohol differ, it is likely that the mechanisms of increasing nicotine preference may not be identical to that of increasing alcohol preference. Stimulation of preference of yet other drugs may again be different -representing one aspect of drug specificity of reward mechanisms.

The endogenous opioid system: a common substrate in drug addiction

Drug addiction is a chronic brain disorder leading to complex adaptive changes within the brain reward circuits that involve several neurotransmitters. One of the neurochemical systems that plays a pivotal role in different aspects of addiction is the endogenous opioid system (EOS). Opioid receptors and endogenous opioid peptides are largely distributed in the mesolimbic system and modulate dopaminergic activity within these reward circuits. Chronic exposure to the different prototypical drugs of abuse, including opioids, alcohol, nicotine, psychostimulants and cannabinoids has been reported to produce significant alterations within the EOS, which seem to play an important role in the development of the addictive process. In this review, we will describe the adaptive changes produced by different drugs of abuse on the EOS, and the current knowledge about the contribution of each component of this neurobiological system to their addictive properties.

[The endogenous opioid system and drug addiction]

Drug addiction is a chronic brain disorder leading to complex adaptive changes within the brain reward circuits. Several neurotransmitters, including the endogenous opioid system are involved in these changes. The opioid system plays a pivotal role in different aspects of addiction. Thus, opioid receptors and endogenous opioid peptides are largely distributed in the mesolimbic system and modulate dopaminergic activity within the reward circuits. Opioid receptors and peptides are selectively involved in several components of the addictive processes induced by opioids, cannabinoids, psychostimulants, alcohol and nicotine. This review is focused on the contribution of each component of the endogenous opioid system in the addictive properties of the different drugs of abuse.

Enhanced nicotine sensitivity in nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor knockout mice

The opioid peptide nociceptin (orphanin FQ) has been implicated in reward, reinforcement and addiction. The current study sought evidence of a role of endogenous nociceptin in nicotine responses by studying nociceptin receptor (NOP) knockout mice. The results were: (1) NOP receptor knockout mice showed enhanced anxiety-like behavior on an elevated plus maze. Whereas nicotine (0.05-0.5 mg/kg) tended to be anxiogenic in wild-type mice, NOP receptor KO mice were resistant to this effect, though interpretation was confounded by their stronger anxiety-like behavior. (2) When presented increasing nicotine concentrations (3-50 microg/ml) in a bottle choice drinking paradigm, there were no genotype-dependent differences in nicotine preference. However, NOP receptor knockout mice consumed more 3 microg/ml nicotine solution when considered in absolute terms. (3) NOP receptor knockout mice showed stronger hypothermic responses to nicotine (1 or 2 mg/kg) administration. (4) There was modest evidence that NOP receptor KO mice showed attenuated behavioral sensitization to a low dose of nicotine (0.05 mg/kg) during repeated daily treatment. (5) NOP receptor knockout mice more rapidly tolerated the sedative effect of nicotine (1 mg/kg), due partially to slightly lower locomotion on first treatment. (6) NOP receptor knockout mice, unlike wild-type mice, showed a significant mecamylamine (2.5 mg/kg) induced conditioned place aversion to nicotine (24 mg/kg/day) withdrawal. These results show that mice lacking the influence of endogenous N/OFQ mice are hypersensitive to nicotine in most measures, showing a role of endogenous nociceptin in modulating or mediating the acute effects of nicotine, and possibly nicotine addiction.

Morphine-nicotine interaction in conditioned place preference in mice after chronic nicotine exposure

Previously we found that morphine's effects on locomotor activity and brain dopamine metabolism were enhanced in mice after cessation of 7-week oral nicotine treatment. In the present experiments we show that such chronic nicotine exposure cross-sensitizes NMRI mice to the reinforcing effect of morphine in the conditioned place preference paradigm. The nicotine-treated mice developed conditioned place preference after being conditioned twice with morphine 5 mg/kg s.c. whereas in control mice a higher dose (10 mg/kg) of morphine was required. Since the reinforcing effect of morphine is mediated via micro-opioid receptors we used [3H]DAMGO autoradiography to study whether the number (B(max)) or affinity (K(D)) of mu-opioid receptors in the mouse brain are affected following chronic nicotine exposure. However, no changes were found in the number or affinity of micro-opioid receptors in any of the brain areas studied. Neither did we find alterations in the functional activity of mu-opioid receptors studied by [35S]GTPgammaS-binding. In conclusion, chronic oral nicotine treatment augments the reinforcing effects of morphine in mice, and this cross-sensitization does not seem to be mediated by micro-opioid receptors.

Involvement of kappa/dynorphin system in the development of tolerance to nicotine-induced antinociception

The aim of the present study was to explore the possible role of kappa/dynorphin system in the development of tolerance to nicotine antinociception in mice. First, we observed that kappa-opioid receptor (KOP-r) participates in the acute spinal antinociception produced by nicotine (3 and 5 mg/kg, s.c.) since the pre-treatment with the selective kappa antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (3 mg/kg, i.p.) attenuated this response in the tail-immersion test but not in the hot-plate test nor in locomotor responses. Possible changes in the expression of KOP-r were investigated in tolerant mice to nicotine antinociception by using autoradiography of [3H]CI-977 binding. The density of KOP-r decreased in the spinal cord of tolerant mice. In addition, bi-directional cross-tolerance between nicotine (3 and 5 mg/kg, s.c.) and the selective kappa agonist U50,488H (10 mg/kg, s.c.) was found in the tail-immersion test. Recent evidences indicate that an up-regulation of dynorphin levels in the spinal cord and subsequent activation of NMDA receptors participate in the development of tolerance to opioid and cannabinoid antinociception. In this study, dynorphin content in the lumbar spinal cord was similar in control and nicotine tolerant mice. Furthermore, the administration of the NMDA antagonist MK-801 (0.03 and 0.01 mg/kg, i.p.) before each daily nicotine injection did not modify the development of nicotine tolerance. In summary, these data indicate that KOP-r is directly involved in the development of tolerance to nicotine antinociception by a mechanism independent from dynorphin and NMDA receptors.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2006

This paper is the 29th consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, now spanning 30 years of research. It summarizes papers published during 2006 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurological disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).

Evaluation of OPRM1 variants in heroin dependence by family-based association testing and meta-analysis

OPRM1, which codes for the mu-opioid receptor, is the most frequently studied candidate gene for opioid dependence. Despite numerous allelic association studies, no definitive conclusion has been reached regarding the role of OPRM1 polymorphisms in determining risk for opioid dependence. We attempted to resolve this by conducting a family-based association study and meta-analysis which may be more robust and powerful, respectively, than traditional case-control analyses. First, we genotyped three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of OPRM1 in 1208 individuals from 473 Han Chinese families ascertained on the basis of having two or more siblings with DSM-IV-defined opioid dependence. The Val6Ala and Arg111His SNPs were detected, but with low minor allele frequencies (0.002 and 0.001, respectively). The Asn40Asp SNP was more informative (minor allele frequency: 0.419), but no significant evidence was observed for either a dominant (p=0.810) or additive (p=0.406) effect of this polymorphism on risk for opioid dependence. In addition, a meta-analysis of case-control studies of opioid dependence was performed, and found a similar lack of evidence for an association with the Asn40Asp SNP (p=0.859). Although a role of OPRM1 polymorphisms in determining risk for opioid dependence cannot be entirely discounted, a major contribution of the Asn40Asp polymorphism seems unlikely. Further analysis is warranted in samples from specific ancestral groups. In addition, it is critical that other OPRM1 variants, including all haplotype-tagging and amino-acid-coding SNPs, be tested for an influence on risk for opioid dependence, since the Asn40Asp polymorphism is only one of several hundred known mutations in the gene.

Effects of selective opioid receptor antagonists on alcohol-induced and nicotine-induced antinociception

BACKGROUND

Despite synergistic increases in risks of various cancers, the incidence of concomitant smoking and drinking remains high. An additive or synergistic analgesic effect of combined alcohol and nicotine may contribute to their coabuse. Recently, we provided evidence that doses of alcohol and nicotine that are ineffective in inducing an antinociceptive effect alone, when combined, can induce such an effect. Moreover, this antinociceptive effect could be attenuated by pretreatment with the nonselective opioid antagonist naloxone. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of selective opioid receptor subtypes (micro, delta, and kappa) in mediating the antinociceptive effects of alcohol, nicotine, and their combination.

METHODS

Adult male Wistar rats were administered selective opioid antagonists, D-Phe-Cys-Tyr-D-Trp-Arg-Thr-Pen-Thr-NH(2) (CTAP, for micro receptor, 1.0 mg/kg), naltrindole (for delta receptors, 10 mg/kg), and norbinaltorphimine (nor-BNI, for kappa receptor, 10 mg/kg) before injection of alcohol, nicotine or their combination. The animals were tested in hot-plate and tail-flick assays, representing nociception mediated predominantly via brain or spinal pathways, respectively. All the injections were administered acutely and the nociceptive tests were carried out 20 minutes after alcohol and 10 minutes after nicotine administration.

RESULTS

In general, the antagonists were more effective in blocking the effects of alcohol, nicotine, or their combination in the tail-flick versus the hot-plate assay. CTAP was most effective in blocking the effects of alcohol alone and nicotine alone in the tail-flick test, whereas in the hot-plate test both CTAP and naltrindole were more effective than nor-BNI. All 3 antagonists had a very similar profile in attenuating the combination of alcohol and nicotine effect in the hot-plate assay. None of the antagonists had a significant effect against the highest alcohol-nicotine dose in this test. In the tail-flick test, however, CTAP and naltrindole were more effective than nor-BNI in attenuating the highest alcohol-nicotine dose.

CONCLUSIONS

The data suggest the utility of all 3 opioid antagonists in blocking the effects of alcohol, nicotine, or their combination in spinally mediated antinociception. Although the supraspinally mediated antinociception was also attenuated by the opioid antagonists, further investigation of combination doses of these antagonists in fully blocking the supraspinal effects or attenuating voluntary alcohol and nicotine intake is warranted.

Subchronic nicotine exposure in adolescence induces long-term effects on hippocampal and striatal cannabinoid-CB1 and mu-opioid receptors in rats

There is evidence for the existence of functional interactions between nicotine and cannabinoids and opioid compounds in adult experimental animals. However, there is scarce information about these relationships in young animals. In the present study we evaluated short and long-term effects of a subchronic nicotine treatment [0.4 mg/kg daily i.p. injections from postnatal day (PND) 34 to PND 43], upon hippocampal and striatal cannabinoid-CB(1) and mu-opioid receptors in Wistar rats of both genders. Rats were sacrificed 2 h after the last nicotine injection (short-term effects, PND 43) or one month later (long-term effects, PND 75). Hippocampal and striatal cannabinoid CB(1) and mu-opioid receptors were quantified by Western blotting. The subchronic nicotine treatment induced a region-dependent long-lasting effect in cannabinoid CB(1) receptor: a significant increase in hippocampal cannabinoid CB(1) receptors and a significant decrease in striatal cannabinoid CB(1) receptors, with these effects being similar in males and females. With respect to mu-opioid receptors, subchronic nicotine induced a significant down-regulation in hippocampal and striatal mu-opioid receptors in the long-term, and within the striatum the effects were more marked in adult males than in females. The present results indicate that juvenile nicotine taking may have implications for the endocannabinoid and endogenous opioid function and for the behaviors served by those systems, this includes possible modification of the response of adults to different psychotropic drugs, i.e. cannabis and morphine/heroin when taken later in life.

Monoamine oxidase A rather than monoamine oxidase B inhibition increases nicotine reinforcement in rats

Although nicotine is considered to be responsible for the addictive properties of tobacco, growing evidence underlines the importance of non-nicotine components in smoking reinforcement. It has been shown that tobacco smoke contains monoamine oxidase (MAO) A and B inhibitors and decreases MAO-A and MAO-B activity in smokers. Here, we investigated the effects of clorgyline hydrochloride (irreversible MAO-A inhibitor; 2 mg/kg/day), selegiline (irreversible MAO-B inhibitor; 4 mg/kg) and the beta-carboline norharmane hydrochloride (reversible MAO-B inhibitor; 5 mg/kg/day) treatments on nicotine self-administration (30 microg/kg/infusion, free base) in rats. Independent of the responsiveness to novelty and locomotor activity stimulation, only clorgyline hydrochloride treatment increased the intake of nicotine in a fixed-ratio schedule (FR5) of reinforcement. When a progressive-ratio schedule was implemented, both clorgyline hydrochloride and norharmane hydrochloride treatments potentiated the reinforcing effects of nicotine, whereas selegiline had no effect. Taken together, these results indicate that MAO-A inhibition interacts with nicotine to enhance its rewarding effects in rats and suggest that other compounds present in tobacco, such as beta-carboline, may also play an important role in sustaining smoking behavior in humans.

Antinociceptive effects of alcohol and nicotine: Involvement of the opioid system

Both alcohol and nicotine have been shown to possess antinociceptive or analgesic effects. An additive or synergistic antinociceptive effect induced by simultaneous administration of alcohol and nicotine could further contribute to their co-abuse. In this study, we sought to evaluate the antinociceptive effects of various combinations of ethanol and nicotine and to determine whether these effects could be blocked by an opioid antagonist. Adult male Wistar rats were treated with various doses of alcohol (0.1-2 g/kg), nicotine (0.01-2 mg/kg) or their combination and their behavior in tail flick test, reflective of spinal antinociception and hotplate test, mainly reflective of supraspinal antinociception were evaluated. Alcohol at the highest dose of 2 g/kg resulted in significant antinociceptive effects in both assays. Nicotine at 1 mg/kg resulted in significant antinociception in the hotplate; however, in the tail flick test a dose of 2 mg/kg was required for an antinociceptive effect. Combination of doses of alcohol and nicotine that were ineffective by themselves resulted in antinociceptive responses in both paradigms. These effects were attenuated by pretreatment with the non-selective opioid receptor antagonist naloxone. The data indicate that a combination of alcohol and nicotine can result in a synergistic antinociceptive response that is at least partially mediated by the opioid system. The analgesic effects induced by combination of alcohol and nicotine may be a contributory factor in their co-abuse.