Sociocultural, Feminist, and Psychological Influences on Women's Body Satisfaction: A Structural Modeling Analysis

Social Comparison and Female Adolescents' Selfie Behaviors: Body Surveillance as the Mediator and Self-Esteem as the Moderator

The current study aimed to examine whether body surveillance mediated the relation between social comparison and selfie behaviors, and whether this mediating process was moderated by self-esteem. A sample of 339 female adolescents were recruited to participate in the present study and completed self-report measures of selfie behaviors, upward and downward appearance comparisons with peers, self-objectification and self-esteem. Results indicated that body surveillance mediated the association between upward physical appearance comparison and selfie behaviors. In addition, self-esteem moderated the relation between body surveillance and selfie behaviors. These findings add to the extant literature by suggesting that selfies may be some new ways of body surveillance and physical appearance comparison, which have some theoretical and practical implications.

Social network addiction symptoms and body dissatisfaction in young women: exploring the mediating role of awareness of appearance pressure and internalization of the thin ideal

BACKGROUND

Previous studies testing for a direct relationship between social networking sites (SNS) addiction and body dissatisfaction (BD) have yielded inconsistent results. Here, we aimed to identify underlying processes that could mediate this relationship. Specifically, we studied the relationship between SNS addiction symptoms and BD through the awareness of appearance pressures and the internalization of beauty ideals, both individually and serially: SNS addiction → Awareness → BD; SNS addiction → Internalization → BD; SNS addiction → Awareness → Internalization → BD.

METHOD

A total of 368 female undergraduates with SNS accounts completed scales to assess SNS addiction symptoms (Social Network Addiction Questionnaire), BD (Body Shape Questionnaire), awareness, and internalization (Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4; awareness and internalization scales). A theoretical serial mediation model was constructed to examine the proposed relationships. Body mass index was included as a covariate to control the influence of this important variable.

RESULTS

The results indicated that both awareness and internalization independently mediated the relationship between SNS addiction symptoms and BD. Also, there was a significant serial mediation effect; women with more SNS addiction symptoms tended to be more aware of appearance pressure, which was associated with the internalization of beauty ideals. In turn, this internalization was positively related to BD symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings shed light on the indirect relationship between SNS addiction and BD, demonstrating independent and accumulative mediating effects of awareness and internalization.

Is Feminist Identity Beneficial for Women’s Career Aspirations? Examining Feminist Identity Profiles

Using latent profile analysis, we examined whether different feminist identity profiles are differentially related to career-related cognitions among women. We identified profiles of feminist identity based on feminist attitudes, feminist self-identification, and participation in feminist activism. In addition, we examined whether the profiles are differentially related to women’s career aspirations, anticipated family-interference-with-work, and willingness to compromise career for family. In Study 1, three profiles of feminist identity (Non-labeler, Passive feminist, and Active feminist) emerged from responses of 282 female undergraduate and graduate students ( Mage = 20.47). In Study 2, three profiles of feminist identity (Non-feminist, Non-labeler, and Active feminist) emerged from responses of 490 adults recruited from Mechanical Turk ( Mage = 38.62). Results showed that the profiles characterized by stronger feminist self-identification were more positively related to women’s career-related cognitions than the profiles characterized by weaker feminist self-identification. Moreover, the profiles characterized by stronger participation in feminist activism were more positively associated with career-related cognitions. These findings suggest a potential benefit of feminist identity and participation in feminist activism for women’s career aspirations.

Awareness of societal emphasis on appearance decreases women's (but not men's) career aspiration: A serial mediation model

This research examined the association between awareness of societal emphasis on physical appearance and people's career aspiration and the process that linked the two. Specifically, we proposed that perceived societal emphasis on physical attractiveness would decrease women's career aspiration through decreased authenticity and perceived opportunity. A total of 349 college students (227 females) participated in the study. The results revealed that awareness of societal emphasis on physical attractiveness negatively predicted women's authenticity, and authenticity positively predicted perception of opportunity, which in turn predicted their career aspiration. However, this serial mediational model was not found in men. These findings suggest that socially prioritization of attractiveness can undermine women's strive for occupational prospects and add to a better understanding of women's growth and development.

Body Mass Index and Nationality (Argentine vs. Spanish) Moderate the Relationship Between Internalization of the Thin Ideal and Body Dissatisfaction: A Conditional Mediation Model

It is believed that Women’s exposure to Western sociocultural pressures to attain a “thin-ideal” results in the internalization of a desire to be thin that consequently leads to body dissatisfaction (BD). It is also well documented that body mass index (BMI; kg/m²) correlates with BD. We tested for the first time a conditional mediation model where thin-ideal Awareness predicted BD through Internalization of the thin ideal and the path from Internalization to BD was hypothesized to be moderated by BMI and Nationality (Argentine vs. Spanish). The model was tested with a sample of 499 young women (age = 18 to 29) from Argentina (n = 290) and Spain (n = 209). Awareness and internalization were measured with the SATAQ-4 (Schaefer et al., 2015) and BD was measured with the BSQ (Cooper et al., 1987). The model was analyzed using PROCESSv3.1 (Hayes, 2018). As hypothesized, thin-ideal awareness predicted BD through internalization and the path from internalization to BD was moderated by BMI and nationality. Specifically, internalization predicted BD at all level of BMI and in both samples, but the relationship between internalization and BD increased with BMI and was also stronger among Spaniards than Argentines. We argue that the findings are congruent with theories that predict that economic development and modernization contribute to normative female BD through internalization of the thin ideal and that upward social comparisons or cognitive discrepancy between self-perceived body image and the sociocultural thin ideal interacts synergistically with thin-ideal internalization to increase BD.

How Do Feminist-Identified Women Cope With Discrimination? A Feminist Standpoint and Grounded Theory Study

Women experience a higher incidence of mental health concerns compared to men, and scholars have located these challenges within a discriminatory sociocultural context. Although scholars have suggested that feminist attitudes may shield women from discrimination, research on the protective role of feminist attitudes is discrepant and suggests that there are distinct differences between those who do and do not self-identify as feminist; namely, self-identifiers may be more protected in the face of discrimination. Utilizing grounded theory and intersectional feminist standpoint methodologies, in this study we sought to understand the ways that self-identified womanist and feminist women cope with discrimination. We found that women’s feminist and cultural identities intersected, each informing the other and influencing coping mechanisms and well-being. Moreover, results demonstrated that feminist women call upon a variety of different coping mechanisms in response to discrimination, including advocacy, social support, self-care, cognitive processes, disengagement, connecting to one’s femininity, and religion and spirituality. Although possessing a feminist and/or womanist identity appeared to be protective in some cases, at other times it did not. Some participants expressed feeling marginalized from the feminist community and felt that their greater awareness of oppression was an additional source of distress. Based on these findings, we provide suggestions for mental health clinicians and research scholars.

The Daily Frequency, Type, and Effects of Appearance Comparisons on Disordered Eating

Using experience sampling methodology, we examined the effects of frequency and occurrence of appearance-based comparisons on disordered eating behaviors (binge eating, restrictive behaviors, and weight-related exercise). A total of 161 Australian women (aged 18–48) completed a baseline measure of eating pathology. An iPhone application prompted participants 6 times daily for 7 days to self-report on appearance comparisons and disordered eating behaviors since the last assessment. We hypothesized that contemporaneously reported occurrences of both upward and downward appearance comparisons, when compared to noncomparison situations, and frequency of upward comparisons would predict disordered eating behaviors. In prospective (lagged) analyses, only upward comparisons (relative to noncomparison situations) significantly predicted the likelihood of disordered eating outcomes. Trait eating pathology had a direct effect on each disordered eating variable and also moderated the influence of upward appearance comparisons (relative to noncomparison assessments) on binge-eating episodes. The lack of a differentiated effect between contemporaneously reported occurrences of upward and downward comparisons suggests that both forms of comparison increase the likelihood of disordered eating. Women may benefit from preventive programs that focus on the detrimental consequences of appearance comparisons on disordered eating; such programs may equip women with strategies to help reduce the frequency of these comparisons.

Bulimic Symptomatology Among Male Collegiate Athletes: A Test of an Etiological Model

We tested Petrie and Greenleaf's psychosocial model in relation to male athletes' bulimic symptomatology. Through structural equation modeling, we cross-sectionally examined the direct and indirect effects of general and sport-specific appearance pressures, internalization, body satisfaction, drive for muscularity, negative affect, and dietary restraint on bulimic symptomatology. Participants were U.S. male collegiate athletes (N = 698; M_age = 19.87 years) representing 17 sports. With minor respecifications, the model had acceptable fit, and the psychosocial variables explained 48% of the bulimic symptomatology variance. Although all variable paths were significant, sport pressures, such as from coaches and teammates about weight, importance of appearance, and looking good in a uniform, were the most salient latent variable. Athletes' engagement in muscle-building behaviors added uniquely and substantively as well. Our analysis begins to clarify the complex interactions among these psychosocial variables in understanding male athletes' bulimic symptomatology and provides a base from which to develop prevention programming.

Why do women engage in fat talk? Examining fat talk using Self-Determination Theory as an explanatory framework

This study used Self-Determination Theory to examine the motivational processes involved in individuals' engagement in fat talk and its association with unhealthy eating behaviors. Female undergraduate students (N=453) completed an online questionnaire, which assessed general and contextual motivation, importance placed on goals, fat talk, and unhealthy eating behaviors. Structural equation modeling revealed that being generally non-self-determined and placing more importance on extrinsic goals, such as thinness, was associated with fat talk. Fat talk was further associated with non-self-determined motivation for eating regulation, which in turn was associated with unhealthy eating. General self-determination and placing more importance on intrinsic goals, such as health, were not associated with fat talk, but instead, were associated with more adaptive forms of eating regulation and diet quality. Findings further current knowledge on the respective roles of motivation and goals on the engagement in fat talk, and its consequences on eating regulation and behavior.

A systematic review of the existing models of disordered eating: Do they inform the development of effective interventions?

Despite significant advances in the development of prevention and treatment interventions for eating disorders and disordered eating over the last decade, there still remains a pressing need to develop more effective interventions. In line with the 2008 Medical Research Council (MRC) evaluation framework from the United Kingdom for the development and evaluation of complex interventions to improve health, the development of sound theory is a necessary precursor to the development of effective interventions. The aim of the current review was to identify the existing models for disordered eating and to identify those models which have helped inform the development of interventions for disordered eating. In addition, we examine the variables that most commonly appear across these models, in terms of future implications for the development of interventions for disordered eating. While an extensive range of theoretical models for the development of disordered eating were identified (N=54), only ten (18.5%) had progressed beyond mere description and to the development of interventions that have been evaluated. It is recommended that future work examines whether interventions in eating disorders increase in efficacy when developed in line with theoretical considerations, that initiation of new models gives way to further development of existing models, and that there be greater utilisation of intervention studies to inform the development of theory.

The place of theory in assembling the central argument for a thesis or dissertation

While theory plays a variety of roles in forming the central argument of an academic work, it is often assigned a secondary status to that of research methods. The following paper focuses specifically on the benefits for psychology research students in engaging with the capacity of theory to enhance the coherence and originality of their academic works (such as theses or dissertations). Barriers to engagement with theory are identified and contributory factors discussed. General trends in academic environments are seen to play an important part in why many students view theory as difficult, unnecessary, and unconnected with the real world. The article then develops an account for understanding the dynamic and multilayered ways in which theory contributes to research enquiries. A framework involving six different layers of theory is described along with a model for understanding how these layers interact and the order in which they might be best addressed. The paper also considers some of the complications between these layers and possible changes to learning environments in psychology that could promote stronger involvement with theory.

Self-objectification, feminist activism and conformity to feminine norms among female vegetarians, semi-vegetarians, and non-vegetarians

Recent research has suggested that vegetarians may be at an increased risk for developing disordered eating or body image issues when compared to non-vegetarians. However, the results of such studies are mixed, and no research has explored potential connections between vegetarianism and self-objectification. In the current study, the authors examine factors that predicted body surveillance, body shame, and appearance control beliefs; three aspects of self-objectification. Surveys were completed by 386 women from the United States who were categorized as vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, or non-vegetarian. The three groups differed regarding dietary motivations, levels of feminist activism, and body shame, but did not differ on their conformity to feminine norms. While conformity to feminine norms predicted body surveillance and body shame levels among all three groups of women, feminist activism predicted appearance control beliefs among non-vegetarians only. These findings suggest that it is important for researchers and clinicians to distinguish among these three groups when examining the relationship between vegetarianism and self-objectification.

Will I Ever Think I’m Thin Enough? A Moderated Mediation Study of Women’s Contingent Self-Esteem, Body Image Discrepancies, and Disordered Eating

Low levels of global self-esteem have been shown to be associated with disordered eating such that individuals who possess more negative attitudes about themselves tend to report more disordered eating symptoms. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether appearance-based contingent self-esteem (i.e., the degree to which individuals base their self-esteem on their physical appearance) and actual–ideal body image discrepancies influence this association. This goal was accomplished with a sample of 877 college women who completed measures of global self-esteem, body image, appearance-based contingent self-esteem, and eating behaviors. A moderated mediation analysis showed that actual–ideal body image discrepancies mediated the association between global self-esteem and disordered eating and that this simple mediation was further moderated by appearance-based contingent self-esteem. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the ways in which actual–ideal body image discrepancies and appearance-based contingent self-esteem influence the association between global self-esteem and disordered eating. Future research aimed at improving intervention and prevention of eating disorders should address the extent to which individuals base their self-worth on their appearance and consider whether reducing appearance-based contingencies of self-worth may protect individuals from developing patterns of disordered eating.

The protective role of general self-determination against ‘thin ideal’ media exposure on women’s body image and eating-related concerns

Women’s responses to ‘thin ideal’ media pending their level of general self-determination (GSD) were examined. High and low GSD women ( N = 99) viewed a ‘thin physique salient’ (TPS) video or a ‘thin physique non-salient’ (TPNS) video. Following exposure to the TPS video, perceptions of pressure from the media to be thin, body dissatisfaction, and concerns over quantity of food were greater for low but not high GSD women. However, high GSD women reported greater concerns over the quality of food they eat following exposure to the TPNS video. Prevention efforts aimed at enhancing GSD are discussed.

Minding the gap between feminist identity and attitudes: the behavioral and ideological divide between feminists and non-labelers

Sexism persists in the contemporary United States and has deleterious effects on women and girls. This suggests that feminism--as a movement, a set of attitudes, or an explicit identity--is still warranted. Although feminist attitudes may buffer against the effects of sexism, notably in health domains, we suggest that there may be an ideological divide between those who hold such attitudes while rejecting the identity (non-labelers) and self-identified feminists. Non-labelers engage in less collective action on behalf of women's rights. On the basis of survey responses of 276 college students, non-labelers appear to be self-interested. We argue that disentangling attitudes from identity is crucial for sharpening predictions about the relation of feminism to other psychological and behavioral variables, and for engaging in broader social change. Furthermore, understanding whether non-labelers' rejection of feminist identity is rooted in fear of stigma associated with the label, neoliberal beliefs, or other explanations is important to those organizing for reform.

Feminist Identity Attitudes, Negative Affect, and Eating Pathology in African American College Women

African American women are believed to have unique experiences related to eating pathology partially because of the intersection of gender and race in Western society. Investigations of negative affect and identity development as predictors of eating pathology in African American women have yielded mixed results; however, feminist identity development is yet to be examined as a predictor of eating problems in this group. Therefore, the current study investigated feminist identity attitudes, anxiety, and depression as predictors of eating pathology in 98 African American college women. Interestingly, most of the participants endorsed a “Synthesis” feminist identity style. However, negative affect emerged as the only significant predictor of eating pathology. These findings are congruent with previous research that supports significant relations between anxiety, depression, and eating disturbance in women.

Overweight and weight dissatisfaction related to socio-economic position, integration and dietary indicators among south Asian immigrants in Oslo

OBJECTIVE

To investigate how socio-economic position, demographic factors, degree of integration and dietary indicators are related to BMI/waist:hip ratio (WHR) and to weight dissatisfaction and slimming among South Asians in Oslo, Norway.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study consisting of a health check including anthropometric measures and two self-administered questionnaires.

SETTING

Oslo, Norway.

SUBJECTS

Pakistanis and Sri Lankans (n 629), aged 30-60 years, residing in Oslo.

RESULTS

BMI was positively associated with female gender (P = 0.004) and Pakistani origin (P < 0.001), and inversely associated with years of education (P = 0.011) and eating more hot meals (P = 0.016). WHR was positively associated with male gender (P < 0.001), age (P < 0.001) and a dietary pattern with high-fat foods (P = 0.005), and inversely associated with degree of integration (measured by a composite index, independent of duration of residence; P = 0.017). One-third of those with normal weight and most of those obese were dissatisfied with their weight. Among these, about 40 % had attempted to slim during the past year. Dissatisfaction with weight was positively associated with education in women (P = 0.006) and with integration in men (P = 0.026), and inversely associated with physical activity (P = 0.044) in men. Women who had made slimming attempts had breakfast and other meals less frequently than others (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Weight dissatisfaction exists among South Asian immigrants. More research is needed regarding bodily dissatisfaction and the relationship between perception of weight and weight-change attempts among immigrants in Norway, in order to prevent and treat both obesity and eating disorders.

Predictors and Effects of Self-Objectification in Lesbians

The majority of research on self-objectification has focused on heterosexual women's experiences. This study sought to examine experiences of self-objectification in lesbian women. A path model was developed to examine the relationships between participants’ feminist self-identification, levels of internalized heterosexism, objectified body consciousness, and the clinically relevant variables of negative eating attitudes and depression. As has been found with heterosexual women, body surveillance led to shame, which led to negative clinical outcomes. A direct path was also found between levels of surveillance and negative eating attitudes, consistent with previous research on self-objectification among lesbians. Feminist self-identification was not significantly related to the other variables, in contrast to previous research with heterosexual women. Internalized heterosexism was related to negative clinical outcomes, both indirectly through objectification variables and directly to depressive symptomatology. These results provide evidence that self-objectification and internalized heterosexism have negative impacts on the mental health of lesbian women.

The influence of feminist ascription on judgements of women's physical attractiveness

The present study examined the effect of feminist ascription on perceptions of the physical attractiveness of women ranging in body mass index (BMI). One-hundred and twenty-nine women who self-identified as feminists and 132 who self-identified as non-feminists rated a series of 10 images of women that varied in BMI from emaciated to obese. Results showed no significant differences between feminist and non-feminists in the figure they considered to be maximally attractive. However, feminists were more likely to positively perceive a wider range of body sizes than non-feminists. These results are discussed in relation to possible protective factors against the internalisation of the thin ideal and body objectification.

Self-Objectification and Well-Being in Women's Daily Lives

Laboratory experiments and surveys show that self-objectification increases body shame, disrupts attention, and negatively predicts well-being. Using experience sampling methodology, the authors investigated self-objectification in the daily lives of 49 female college students. Building on the predictions of objectification theory, they examined associations between internalizing an observer's perspective on the self and psychological well-being, and examined the moderating roles of trait self-esteem and appearance-contingent self-worth. Within-person increases in self-objectification predicted decreased well-being, but this association was moderated by trait self-esteem and trait appearance-contingent self-worth; high self-esteem, highly appearance-contingent participants reported increased well-being when they self-objectified. Furthermore, perceived unattractiveness partially mediated the main effect and the three-way interaction: high self-esteem, highly contingent participants experienced smaller drops in well-being when they self-objectified, in part because they felt less unattractive. These results suggest that in daily life, some women receive a boost from self-objectification, although most women experience decreases in well-being when self-objectifying.

Sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction: could feminist beliefs be a moderating factor?

Theory and research suggest that sociocultural pressures, thin-ideal internalization, and self-objectification are associated with body dissatisfaction, while feminist beliefs may serve a protective function. This research examined thin-ideal internalization and self-objectification as mediators and feminist beliefs as a moderator in the relationship between sociocultural pressures to meet the thin-ideal and body dissatisfaction. Female undergraduate volunteers (N=195) completed self-report measures assessing sociocultural influences, feminist beliefs, thin-ideal internalization, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction. Multisample structural equation modeling showed that feminist beliefs moderate the relationship between media awareness and thin-ideal internalization, but not the relationship between social influence and thin-ideal internalization. Research and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Ethnicity as a protective factor against internalization of a thin ideal and body dissatisfaction

OBJECTIVE

We examined the potential for ethnicity to moderate the relationships between awareness and internalization of sociocultural ideals of appearance and between internalization and body dissatisfaction.

METHOD

Spanish (n = 100), Mexican American (n = 100), and European American (n = 100) female participants completed measures of sociocultural attitudes and body dissatisfaction. Path analysis using maximum likelihood with robust standard errors tested the relationships across and within ethnic groups.

RESULTS

There was evidence for the mediational effect of internalization on the relationship between awareness and body dissatisfaction. Furthermore, both relationships were significantly stronger for European American women than for Mexican American or Spanish women (the predicted moderator effect).

DISCUSSION

Results demonstrate how ethnicity may protect against the development of eating disorder symptoms and suggest that eating disorder prevention should involve denouncing the thin ideal, minimizing appearance as an indicator of value, and emphasizing traits other than appearance as determinants of worth.

Self-deceptive enhancement and family environment: possible protective factors against internalization of the thin ideal

We examined the degree to which self-deceptive enhancement and/or family environment moderated the relationship between awareness and internalization of sociocultural appearance standards. We administered the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire, the Family Environment Scale, the Family History of Eating questionnaire, and the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding to female undergraduate students (N = 232) and tested our predictions with moderator regression. Self-deceptive enhancement appeared to moderate the relationship between awareness and internalization. Family history of weight and appearance preoccupation also marginally moderated the relationship whereas general family environment did not. High levels of self-deceptive enhancement may serve as a protective factor against internalization of sociocultural pressures. High levels of family preoccupation with weight and appearance may have the opposite effect, making women more vulnerable to internalization.