Local antibiotics in dermatology

Metabolic engineering approaches for the biosynthesis of antibiotics

BACKGROUND

Antibiotics have been saving countless lives from deadly infectious diseases, which we now often take for granted. However, we are currently witnessing a significant rise in the emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, making these infections increasingly difficult to treat in hospitals.

MAIN TEXT

The discovery and development of new antibiotic has slowed, largely due to reduced profitability, as antibiotics often lose effectiveness quickly as pathogenic bacteria evolve into MDR strains. To address this challenge, metabolic engineering has recently become crucial in developing efficient enzymes and cell factories capable of producing both existing antibiotics and a wide range of new derivatives and analogs. In this paper, we review recent tools and strategies in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology for antibiotic discovery and the efficient production of antibiotics, their derivatives, and analogs, along with representative examples.

CONCLUSION

These metabolic engineering and synthetic biology strategies offer promising potential to revitalize the discovery and development of new antibiotics, providing renewed hope in humanity's fight against MDR pathogenic bacteria.

Scientific Rationale and Clinical Basis for Clindamycin Use in the Treatment of Dermatologic Disease

Clindamycin is a highly effective antibiotic of the lincosamide class. It has been widely used for decades to treat a range of skin and soft tissue infections in dermatology and medicine. Clindamycin is commonly prescribed for acne vulgaris, with current practice standards utilizing fixed-combination topicals containing clindamycin that prevent Cutibacterium acnes growth and reduce inflammation associated with acne lesion formation. Certain clinical presentations of folliculitis, rosacea, staphylococcal infections, and hidradenitis suppurativa are also responsive to clindamycin, demonstrating its suitability and versatility as a treatment option. This review describes the use of clindamycin in dermatological practice, the mechanism of protein synthesis inhibition by clindamycin at the level of the bacterial ribosome, and clindamycin's anti-inflammatory properties with a focus on its ability to ameliorate inflammation in acne. A comparison of the dermatologic indications for similarly utilized antibiotics, like the tetracycline class antibiotics, is also presented. Finally, this review addresses both the trends and mechanisms for clindamycin and antibiotic resistance, as well as the current clinical evidence in support of the continued, targeted use of clindamycin in dermatology.

Recent Advancement in Novel Wound Healing Therapies by Using Antimicrobial Peptides Derived from Humans and Amphibians

The skin is the biggest organ in the human body. It is the first line of protection against invading pathogens and the starting point for the immune system. The focus of this review is on the use of amphibian-derived peptides and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in the treatment of wound healing. When skin is injured, a chain reaction begins that includes inflammation, the formation of new tissue, and remodelling of existing tissue to aid in the healing process. Collaborating with non-immune cells, resident and recruited immune cells in the skin remove foreign invaders and debris, then direct the repair and regeneration of injured host tissues. Restoration of normal structure and function requires the healing of damaged tissues. However, a major issue that slows wound healing is infection. AMPs are just one type of host-defense chemicals that have developed in multicellular animals to regulate the immune response and limit microbial proliferation in response to various types of biological or physical stress. Therefore, peptides isolated from amphibians represent novel therapeutic tools and approaches for regenerating damaged skin. Peptides that speed up the healing process could be used as therapeutic lead molecules in future research into novel drugs. AMPs and amphibian-derived peptides may be endogenous mediators of wound healing and treat non-life-threatening skin and epithelial lesions. Thus, the present article was drafted with to incorporate different peptides used in wound healing, their method of preparation and routes of administration.

No country for old antibiotics! Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as next-generation treatment for skin and soft tissue infection

In recent years, the unprecedented rise of bacterial antibiotic resistance together with the lack of adequate therapies have made the treatment of skin infections and chronic wounds challenging, urging the scientific community to focus on the development of new and more efficient treatment strategies. In this context, there is a growing interest in the use of natural molecules with antimicrobial features, capable of supporting wound healing i.e., antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), for the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. In this review, we give a short overview of the bacterial skin infections as well as some of the classic treatments used for topical application. We then summarize the AMPs classes, stressing the importance of the appropriate selection of the peptides based on their characteristics and physicochemical properties in order to maximize the antibacterial efficacy of the therapeutic systems against multi-drug resistant pathogens. Additionally, the present paper provides a comprehensive and rigorous assessment of the latest clinical trials investigating the efficacy of AMPs in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections, highlighting the relevant outcomes. Seeking to obtain novel and improved compounds with synergistic activity, while also decreasing some of the known side effects of AMPs, we present two employed strategies using AMPs: (i) AMPs-conjugated nanosystems for systemic and topical drug delivery systems and (ii) antibiotics-peptide conjugates as a strategy to overcome antibiotics resistance. Finally, an important property of some of the AMPs used in wound treatment is highlighted: their ability to help in wound healing by generally promoting cell proliferation and migration, and in some cases re-epithelialization and angiogenesis among others. Thus, as the pursuit of improvement is an ongoing effort, this work presents the advances made in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections along with their advantages and limitations, while the still remaining challenges are addressed by providing future prospects and strategies to overcome them.

Hinokitiol Selectively Enhances the Antibacterial Activity of Tetracyclines against Staphylococcus aureus

The increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance causes an urgent need for alternative agents to combat drug-resistant bacterial pathogens. Plant-derived compounds are promising candidates for the treatment of infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Hinokitiol (β-thujaplicin), a natural tropolone derivative found in the heartwood of cupressaceous plants, has been widely used in oral and skin care products as an antimicrobial agent. The aim of this work was to study the synergy potential of hinokitiol with antibiotics against Staphylococcus aureus, which is an extremely successful opportunistic pathogen capable of causing nosocomial and community-acquired infections worldwide. The MIC was determined by the broth microdilution method, and the effect of combinations was evaluated through fractional inhibitory concentration indices (FICI). The mechanism behind this synergy was also investigated by using fluorescence spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The MICs of hinokitiol alone against most S. aureus strains were 32 μg/mL. Selectively synergistic activities (FICIs of ≤0.5) were observed for combinations of this phytochemical with tetracyclines against all tested strains of S. aureus. Importantly, hinokitiol at 1 μg/mL completely or partially reversed tetracycline resistance in staphylococcal isolates. The increased accumulation of tetracycline inside S. aureus in the presence of hinokitiol was observed. In addition, hinokitiol promoted the uptake of ethidium bromide (EB) in bacterial cells without membrane depolarization, suggesting that it may be an efflux pump inhibitor. IMPORTANCE The disease caused by S. aureus is a public health issue due to the continuing emergence of drug-resistant strains, particularly methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Tetracyclines, one of the old classes of antimicrobials, have been used for the treatment of infections caused by S. aureus. However, the increased resistance to tetracyclines together with their toxicity have limited their use in the clinic. Here, we demonstrated that the combination of hinokitiol and tetracyclines displayed synergistic antibacterial activity against S. aureus, including tetracycline-resistant strains and MRSA, offering a potential alternative approach for the treatment of infections caused by this bacterium.

Topical Antibiotic Treatment in Dermatology

Many indications in dermatology can be effectively managed with topical antibiotics, including acne vulgaris, wound infections, secondarily infected dermatitis, and impetigo. Dermatologists must be familiar with the wide spectrum of topical antibiotics available, including indications, mechanisms of action, adverse events, and spectra of activity. Dermatologists must also keep antibiotic resistance in mind when utilizing these medications. Due to the widespread use of topical antibiotics and their importance in dermatology, a literature review was performed using a systematic search of PubMed and Google Scholar with the terms topical antibiotics, skin infections, dermatology, antimicrobials, and inflammatory dermatoses to identify English-language articles published between 1965-2022 from any country. Relevant publications were manually reviewed for additional content. The following literature review will summarize the common topical antibiotics used in dermatology.

Pediatric impetigo: an expert panel opinion about its main controversies

Bacterial impetigo is one of the most common skin infection in childhood. Uncertainty exists about its management. This article offers practical suggestions, given the existing evidence and experts' opinions, for correctly managing pediatric impetigo in both hospital and ambulatory settings. Italian physicians with an expertise on pediatric impetigo appointed a working group. A preliminary literature search using Pubmed/MEDLINE and Cochrane Library databases has been performed. The most common controversial issues about pediatric impetigo have been identified and then discussed from multidisciplinary perspectives, according to the 'structured controversy' methodology, a technique discovered and designed to get engaged in a controversy and then guide participants to seek consensus. The expert panels identified 10 main controversies about pediatric impetigo. All of them have been discussed from dermatological, pediatric, pharmacological and microbiological points of view reaching consensus. Each controversy has been revised thus giving practical issues for an easy use in clinical practice. Based on clinical experts' opinion, local epidemiology and literature review this article offers practical suggestions for the management of pediatric impetigo trying to reduce uncertainty in this setting of care.

The Antimicrobial Properties of Modified Pharmaceutical Bentonite with Zinc and Copper

Pharmaceutical grade bentonite, containing a high amount of montmorillonite, enriched with zinc (Zn) or copper (Cu) (ZnBent and CuBent, respectively) was used as the main component for the creation of formulations for cutaneous use and tested for their antimicrobial capacity. Bentonite (Bent) with added phenoxyethanol (PH) as a preservative and unmodified bentonite were used as control groups. The mineralogical composition, structural state, and physical or chemical properties, before and after the modification of the samples, were characterized utilizing X-ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD), Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) techniques, and Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM, SEM-EDS) analyses. In addition, the profile of zinc and copper concentration from two types of surfaces ZnBent and CuBent, and into Phosphate-Buffered Saline (PBS) are discussed. Finally, the formulations in the form of basic pastes were challenged against bacteria, molds, and yeasts, and their performance was evaluated based on the European Pharmacopeia criteria. The Cu-modified bentonite performed excellently against bacteria and yeasts, while the Zn-modified bentonite only showed great results against yeasts. Therefore, Cu-modified bentonite formulations could offer antimicrobial protection without the use of preservatives.

Topical Antibacterials in Dermatology

Topical antibacterials are commonly used for superficial pyodermas such as impetigo and treatment or prevention of infections following minor cuts, abrasions, burns, and surgical wounds. Several antibiotics and antiseptics are available for use in different indications. One of the major uses of topical antibacterials is acne in which benzoyl peroxide is the drug of the first choice either singly or in combination with antibiotics or retinoids. Mupirocin and fusidic acid are the two most commonly used antibiotics for the treatment of superficial pyodermas and eradication of staphylococcal carrier state. Bacterial resistance to topical antibiotics is a growing concern and topical antiseptics such as gentian violet are getting renewed interest as alternatives. Incidence of contact dermatitis is a limiting factor for the use of several topical antibacterials. Although many botanical products have demonstrated in vitro activities against skin pathogens, their clinical utilities remain to be established by good-quality clinical trials.

Acne - therapeutic challenges to the cooperation between a dermatologist and a cosmetologist

Acne vulgaris is one of the most common skin diseases in adolescence, causing a significant negative impact on the quality of life of young people who - in a large percentage of cases - do not accept their appearance. The complex pathogenesis of this disease requires appropriate preventive and curative treatment from both a dermatologist and a cosmetologist. The aim of the study was to discuss the methods currently used by dermatologists in local therapy for mild and intermediate forms of acne vulgaris, and to provide an overview of possible preventive and caring activities in the cosmetologist's office. Possible directions of cooperation between the dermatologist and the cosmetologist in the prevention of acne relapse and treatment of possible acne complications were also discussed.

Confirmation of chronic endometritis in repeated implantation failure and success outcome in IVF-ET after intrauterine delivery of the combined administration of antibiotic and dexamethasone

PROBLEM

The aim of this prospective study was to investigate the prevalence of chronic endometritis (CE) in repeated implantation failure (RIF) patients and to determine whether intrauterine delivery of the combined administration of antibiotic and dexamethasone improves the clinical pregnancy outcome.

METHOD OF STUDY

The combination of hysteroscopy and histology was used to diagnose CE in the patients with RIF, and the diagnosed patients were treated with the intrauterine delivery of the combined antibiotic and dexamethasone therapy. The prevalence of CE in the RIF patients was recorded, and the therapeutic effect was also evaluated in the first IVF-ET cycle.

RESULTS

In a total number of 298 patients with RIF, 109 cases (36.58%) were diagnosed as CE. Intrauterine infusion treatment resulted in CE resolution in 77.98% of patients. After the treatment, 85 cases with no signs of CE (Group 2) had a significantly higher implantation rate (31.33%) and clinical pregnancy rate (51.76%) as compared with both 126 cases without CE diagnosis (Group 1; 16.30% and 30.15%, respectively) and 24 cases with persistence of CE (Group 3; 14.89% and 25.00%, respectively). The live birth rate in the first IVF-ET cycle following treatment in Group 2 was significantly higher than that of both Group 1 and Group 3 (all P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Chronic endometritis is highly prevalent in patients with RIF. To the best of our knowledge, we for the first time reported that intrauterine delivery of the combined administration of antibiotic and dexamethasone as a treatment option of CE could achieve expected therapeutic effects and successful pregnancy outcomes.

Childhood atopic dermatitis: current developments, treatment approaches, and future expectations

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is the most common chronic inflammatory skin disorder of childhood. Underlying factors that contribute to AD are impaired epithelial barrier, alterations in the lipid composition of the skin, immunological imbalance including increased Th2/Th1 ratio, proinflammatory cytokines, decreased T regulatory cells, genetic mutations, and epigenetic alterations. Atopic dermatitis is a multifactorial disease with a particularly complicated pathophysiology. Discoveries to date may be considered the tip of the iceberg, and the increasing number of studies in this field indicate that there are many points to be elucidated in AD pathophysiology. In this review, we aimed to illustrate the current understanding of the underlying pathogenic mechanisms in AD, to evaluate available treatment options with a focus on recently discovered therapeutic agents, and to determine the personal, familial, and economic burdens of the disease, which are frequently neglected issues in AD. Currently available therapies only provide transient solutions and cannot fully cure the disease. However, advances in the understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms of the disease have led to the production of new treatment options, while ongoing drug trials also have had promising results.

Topical antibiotics in pregnancy: A review of safety profiles

Medications should be used with caution in women of childbearing age who are pregnant, or are contemplating pregnancy. Although topical medications are considered safer than oral or parenteral agents, their safety data in pregnancy must be assessed carefully. The available information on medication use in pregnancy is limited, and not always aided by the FDA pregnancy letter category system. Thus, in this article, we aggregate human studies, animal studies, and pharmacokinetics data to provide recommendations on utilizing topical antibiotics in pregnancy.

Efficient treatment of chronic endometritis through a novel approach of intrauterine antibiotic infusion: a case series

BACKGROUND

Early diagnosis and efficient management of Chronic Endometritis (CE) in patients seeking fertility treatment are two components every practitioner wishes to address. With respect to endometrial restoration, antibiotic treatment appears to perform well. However, regarding the improvement of In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) success rates, literature evidence is inconclusive, and consensus on optimal treatment has yet to be reached. This manuscript uniquely brings to literature the first report on effective employment of intrauterine antibiotic infusion to treat CE and contribute to addressing the infertility related to it.

CASE PRESENTATION

In this case series, we present 3 patients reporting numerous previous failed IVF attempts accompanied with diagnosed CE which failed to be properly treated in the past. Following initial assessment in our clinic and verification of CE findings, an oral antibiotic regime was administered based on the infectious agent detected. Re-evaluation concluded slightly improved microbiological environment in the endometrium but persisting inflammation. Antibiotic intrauterine infusion was proposed to the patients as an alternative practice. All our patients achieved a pregnancy shortly following intrauterine treatment with one patient reporting a live birth of twin babies and two patients currently reporting an ongoing pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

The implications of this case series contribute to medical knowledge and extend to both effective treatment of CE and subsequent management of related infertility. The current line of treatment of CE through oral antibiotic regimes highlights the need for exploring new options and calls for larger studies on the clinical implication of their use. This novel approach enabled natural conception for patients presenting with established Recurrent Implantation Failure (RIF) having undergone numerous futile IVF attempts. The clinical impact from the practitioner's perspective is considerable allowing for an alternative line of treatment that merits further investigation.

Topical Antimicrobials in Burn Care: Part 1-Topical Antiseptics

Burn wounds disrupt the body's primary defense against invasion and colonization by microorganisms. Topical antimicrobials are one component in burn wound care. These agents suppress microbial growth to advantage skin cells and wound healing. Topical antimicrobials can be divided into 2 superclasses: antiseptics and antibiotics. We review the 4 main classes of topical antiseptics (emulsifiers, acids, oxidizers, and heavy metals) and antiseptic-impregnated dressings in current clinical use and address the mechanisms, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each antiseptic for burn wound management.

Development and use of microbial-based cleaning products (MBCPs): Current issues and knowledge gaps

Cleaning products containing microbes as active ingredients are becoming increasingly prevalent as an alternative to chemical-based cleaning products. These microbial-based cleaning products (MBCPs) are being used in domestic and commercial settings (i.e., households and businesses) and institutional settings (e.g., hospitals, schools, etc.), in a variety of cleaning activities (hard surface cleaning, odour control, degreasing, septic tank treatments, etc.). They are typically described as "environmentally friendly" and "non-toxic". Publicly available information sources (scientific literature, patent databases, commercial websites) were searched for information on microbial species contained in MBCPs, their mode of action, cleaning applications in which they are used, and their potential impacts on human health and the environment. Although information was found providing a broad indication of microbial genera/species used, information on specific species/strains and quantities produced and sold is generally lacking. This makes it difficult to conduct a meaningful examination of any risks to human health and the environment from the production and use of MBCPs and to determine how effective current policies and regulatory frameworks are in addressing these issues. These and other challenges were addressed at an international workshop in Ottawa, Canada in June 2013 by a number of stakeholders, including industry, government, academic and non-governmental organizations.

Topical antimicrobial agents for treating foot ulcers in people with diabetes

BACKGROUND

People with diabetes are at high risk for developing foot ulcers, which often become infected. These wounds, especially when infected, cause substantial morbidity. Wound treatments should aim to alleviate symptoms, promote healing, and avoid adverse outcomes, especially lower extremity amputation. Topical antimicrobial therapy has been used on diabetic foot ulcers, either as a treatment for clinically infected wounds, or to prevent infection in clinically uninfected wounds.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of treatment with topical antimicrobial agents on: the resolution of signs and symptoms of infection; the healing of infected diabetic foot ulcers; and preventing infection and improving healing in clinically uninfected diabetic foot ulcers.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Wounds Specialised Register, CENTRAL, Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid MEDLINE (In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations), Ovid Embase, and EBSCO CINAHL Plus in August 2016. We also searched clinical trials registries for ongoing and unpublished studies, and checked reference lists to identify additional studies. We used no restrictions with respect to language, date of publication, or study setting.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials conducted in any setting (inpatient or outpatient) that evaluated topical treatment with any type of solid or liquid (e.g., cream, gel, ointment) antimicrobial agent, including antiseptics, antibiotics, and antimicrobial dressings, in people with diabetes mellitus who were diagnosed with an ulcer or open wound of the foot, whether clinically infected or uninfected.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently performed study selection, 'Risk of bias' assessment, and data extraction. Initial disagreements were resolved by discussion, or by including a third review author when necessary.

MAIN RESULTS

We found 22 trials that met our inclusion criteria with a total of over 2310 participants (one study did not report number of participants). The included studies mostly had small numbers of participants (from 4 to 317) and relatively short follow-up periods (4 to 24 weeks). At baseline, six trials included only people with ulcers that were clinically infected; one trial included people with both infected and uninfected ulcers; two trials included people with non-infected ulcers; and the remaining 13 studies did not report infection status.Included studies employed various topical antimicrobial treatments, including antimicrobial dressings (e.g. silver, iodides), super-oxidised aqueous solutions, zinc hyaluronate, silver sulphadiazine, tretinoin, pexiganan cream, and chloramine. We performed the following five comparisons based on the included studies: Antimicrobial dressings compared with non-antimicrobial dressings: Pooled data from five trials with a total of 945 participants suggest (based on the average treatment effect from a random-effects model) that more wounds may heal when treated with an antimicrobial dressing than with a non-antimicrobial dressing: risk ratio (RR) 1.28, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.12 to 1.45. These results correspond to an additional 119 healing events in the antimicrobial-dressing arm per 1000 participants (95% CI 51 to 191 more). We consider this low-certainty evidence (downgraded twice due to risk of bias). The evidence on adverse events or other outcomes was uncertain (very low-certainty evidence, frequently downgraded due to risk of bias and imprecision). Antimicrobial topical treatments (non dressings) compared with non-antimicrobial topical treatments (non dressings): There were four trials with a total of 132 participants in this comparison that contributed variously to the estimates of outcome data. Evidence was generally of low or very low certainty, and the 95% CIs spanned benefit and harm: proportion of wounds healed RR 2.82 (95% CI 0.56 to 14.23; 112 participants; 3 trials; very low-certainty evidence); achieving resolution of infection RR 1.16 (95% CI 0.54 to 2.51; 40 participants; 1 trial; low-certainty evidence); undergoing surgical resection RR 1.67 (95% CI 0.47 to 5.90; 40 participants; 1 trial; low-certainty evidence); and sustaining an adverse event (no events in either arm; 81 participants; 2 trials; very low-certainty evidence). Comparison of different topical antimicrobial treatments: We included eight studies with a total of 250 participants, but all of the comparisons were different and no data could be appropriately pooled. Reported outcome data were limited and we are uncertain about the relative effects of antimicrobial topical agents for each of our review outcomes for this comparison, that is wound healing, resolution of infection, surgical resection, and adverse events (all very low-certainty evidence). Topical antimicrobials compared with systemic antibiotics : We included four studies with a total of 937 participants. These studies reported no wound-healing data, and the evidence was uncertain for the relative effects on resolution of infection in infected ulcers and surgical resection (very low certainty). On average, there is probably little difference in the risk of adverse events between the compared topical antimicrobial and systemic antibiotics treatments: RR 0.91 (95% CI 0.78 to 1.06; moderate-certainty evidence - downgraded once for inconsistency). Topical antimicrobial agents compared with growth factor: We included one study with 40 participants. The only review-relevant outcome reported was number of ulcers healed, and these data were uncertain (very low-certainty evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The randomised controlled trial data on the effectiveness and safety of topical antimicrobial treatments for diabetic foot ulcers is limited by the availability of relatively few, mostly small, and often poorly designed trials. Based on our systematic review and analysis of the literature, we suggest that: 1) use of an antimicrobial dressing instead of a non-antimicrobial dressing may increase the number of diabetic foot ulcers healed over a medium-term follow-up period (low-certainty evidence); and 2) there is probably little difference in the risk of adverse events related to treatment between systemic antibiotics and topical antimicrobial treatments based on the available studies (moderate-certainty evidence). For each of the other outcomes we examined there were either no reported data or the available data left us uncertain as to whether or not there were any differences between the compared treatments. Given the high, and increasing, frequency of diabetic foot wounds, we encourage investigators to undertake properly designed randomised controlled trials in this area to evaluate the effects of topical antimicrobial treatments for both the prevention and the treatment of infection in these wounds and ultimately the effects on wound healing.

The Role of Staphylococcus aureus in Secondary Infections in Patients with Atopic Dermatitis (AD)

Staphylococcus aureus colonizes the mucous membrane of the nasal vestibule of a significant number of healthy people. These microorganisms are opportunistic pathogens, that in favorable conditions, may cause infections of various course, location or manifestation. Secondary infections emerge in cases when other risk factors contribute to such a change. One of the diseases during which S. aureus changes its saprophytic character to a pathogenic one is atopic dermatitis (AD), an allergic skin condition of a chronic and recurrent nature. Patients with AD are highly predisposed to secondary staphylococcal infections due to active S. aureus colonization of the stratum corneum, damage of the skin barrier or a defective immune response. Microorganisms present in skin lesions destroy the tissue by secreting enzymes and toxins, and additionally stimulate secondary allergic reactions. The toxins secreted by strains of S. aureus also act as superantigens and penetrate the skin barrier contributing to a chronic inflammation of the atopic skin lesions. The S. aureus species also releases proinflammatory proteins, including enzymes that cause tissue damage. When initiating treatment it is particularly important to properly assess that the onset of the secondary bacterial infection is caused by S. aureus and thus justifying the inclusion of antibiotic therapy. Depending on the severity and extent of the staphylococcal infection, topical antibiotics are used, usually mupirocin or fusidic acid, or general antibiotic treatment is introduced. Another therapeutic strategy without antibiotics has given a positive effect in patients.

Consensus Conference on Clinical Management of pediatric Atopic Dermatitis

The Italian Consensus Conference on clinical management of atopic dermatitis in children reflects the best and most recent scientific evidence, with the aim to provide specialists with a useful tool for managing this common, but complex clinical condition. Thanks to the contribution of experts in the field and members of the Italian Society of Pediatric Allergology and Immunology (SIAIP) and the Italian Society of Pediatric Dermatology (SIDerP), this Consensus statement integrates the basic principles of the most recent guidelines for the management of atopic dermatitis to facilitate a practical approach to the disease. The therapeutical approach should be adapted to the clinical severity and requires a tailored strategy to ensure good compliance by children and their parents. In this Consensus, levels and models of intervention are also enriched by the Italian experience to facilitate a practical approach to the disease.

The inhibition the Tet(K) efflux pump of tetracycline resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis by essential oils from three Salvia species

The inhibition of efflux pumps is an attractive and powerful response to the emergence of bacteria resistant to antibiotics. Essential oils (EOs) from Salvia fruticosa, Salvia officinalis and Salvia sclarea reduce the minimal inhibition concentration of tetracycline, decrease efflux of antibiotic and decrease the expression of tet(K) gene in tetracycline resistant clinical isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis. In all the cases S. fruticosa was the best one. By using checkerboard and time-killing methods, we found synergistic interactions of EOs with tetracycline.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Our data from molecular and functional analyses of inhibitory effect of Salvia's essential oils, namely from S. fruticosa, on Tet(K) pump of Staphylococcus epidermidis and from modulatory studies may be the starting point for consecutive study of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters and their perspective use in combination therapy. Combination of antibiotic with efflux pump inhibitor would be expected to re-establish susceptibility of the bacteria to antibiotics that became no longer effective due to bacterial resistance through the efflux pumps. The inhibition of an efflux pump can potentially improve the clinical efficacy of an antibiotic and simultaneously decrease the selection of resistant mutants.

Synergistic interactions of epigallocatechin gallate and oxytetracycline against various drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains in vitro

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the major catechin contained in tea leaves, is known to possess the synergistic anti-staphylococcal activity in combination with various β-lactam antibiotics and tetracycline. In the present study, we explored the in vitro combinatory effect of EGCG in combination with oxytetracycline against eight standard strains and clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus, including erythromycin, methicillin and tetracycline resistant strains. The minimum inhibitory concentrations were determined by the broth microdilution assay and the data were evaluated according to the sum of fractional inhibitory concentrations (∑FIC). Our results showed synergistic and additive interactions against all S. aureus strains tested (∑FIC 0.288-0.631), two of which were multidrug resistant. According to our best knowledge, it is the first report on the EGCG synergy with oxytetracycline. Considering its significant synergistic antimicrobial effect and low toxicity, we suggest EGCG as a promising compound for the development of new anti-staphylococcal formulations.

Bacterial skin colonization and infections in patients with atopic dermatitis

Atopic Dermatitis is a chronic inflammatory skin disease that affects a large number of children and adults. The disease results from an interaction between genetic predisposition, host environment, skin barrier defects, and immunological factors. A major aggravating factor associated with Atopic Dermatitis is the presence of microorganisms on the patient's skin surface. Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes, for instance, can exacerbate chronic skin inflammation. As a result, antimicrobials have often been prescribed to control the acute phase of the disease. However, increased bacterial resistance to antimicrobial agents has made it difficult for dermatologists to prescribe appropriate medication. In the presence of disseminated dermatitis with secondary infection, systemic antibiotics need to be prescribed; however, treatment should be individualized, in an attempt to find the most effective antibiotic with fewer side effects. Also, the medication should be used for as short as possible in order to minimize bacterial resistance.

Antibiotic overuse and resistance in dermatology

Antibiotics have a significant role in dermatology, treating a wide range of diseases, including acne, rosacea, inflammatory skin conditions and skin structure infections, such as cellulitis, folliculitis, carbuncles, and furuncles. Because of their consistent use, utility, and availability, antibiotics are susceptible to overuse within the medical practice, and, specific to this discussion, in the dermatologic setting. The issue of continuously increasing risk of antibiotic resistance remains an important concern to the dermatologist. The scope of this review will be to provide an overview of the common antibiotics used in the dermatologic setting with an emphasis on identifying areas of overuse, reported bacterial resistance, and discussion of clinical management aimed at decreasing antibiotic resistance.

Bacterial resistance and impetigo treatment trends: a review

Impetigo is a common cutaneous infection that is especially prevalent in children. The prevalence of colonization and infection with resistant strains is continually increasing, forcing clinicians to reevaluate treatment strategies. Newer topical agents are effective in treating infections with resistant strains and may help minimize resistance and adverse effects from systemic agents. Use of topical disinfectants to decrease colonization is an important adjunctive measure. Physicians should be aware of local resistance patterns in impetigo to help guide therapy.

Topical antibiotic trends from 1993 to 2007: use of topical antibiotics for non-evidence-based indications

BACKGROUND

Systemic antibiotic use has become more conservative with the emergence of drug resistance. Topical antibiotics are employed for a variety of indications, although there are only a few evidence-based indications.

OBJECTIVE

To examine topical antibiotics use in the outpatient setting.

METHODS

Topical antibiotic use was characterized using data from the 1993 to 2007 National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. Visits were identified at which a topical antibiotic was used and analyzed according to patient demographics, diagnoses, procedures, concomitant medications, and provider specialty. Topical antibiotic use over time was analyzed using linear regression.

RESULTS

The most frequent diagnoses associated with topical antibiotic use were benign or malignant neoplasm of skin, impetigo, insect bite, and cellulitis. Data revealed a significant downward trend in topical antibiotics associated with dermatologic surgery (p<.001) and a nonsignificant downward trend in use in conjunction with skin biopsies (p=.09). Topical antibiotic use by dermatologists was noted to be decreasing over time, whereas among non dermatologists, it was noted to be increasing, although neither of these trends was statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

Topical antibiotics continue to be used for non-evidence-based indications, despite data that suggest that such use may be detrimental for patients and represents significant costs to the health care system. The authors have indicated no significant interest with commercial supporters.

Topical antibacterial agents

Decreased systemic toxicity, ease of application, and increased concentrations at the target site are some of the important advantages topical antibacterial agents offer. This article reviews the literature on selected indications for these agents and provides in-depth examination of specific agents for the prophylaxis and treatment of skin and wound infections.

Topical antibacterial agents

Decreased systemic toxicity, ease of application, and increased concentrations at the target site are some of the important advantages topical antibacterial agents offer. This article reviews the literature on selected indications for these agents and provides in-depth examination of specific agents for the prophylaxis and treatment of skin and wound infections.

Topical antimicrobial agents for burn wounds

Because burns destroy the barrier against invading bacteria, topical antimicrobial agents have been developed to minimize the proliferation of bacteria and other microorganisms. The topical treatment depends on the depth of burns. The goal for superficial burns is to optimize re-epithelialization. For deep burns, topical antimicrobial agents should be used to minimize microbial growth until the wound is grafted. This article introduces a strategy for the rational use of these agents.