Motor skill impairment in SIV-infected rhesus macaques with rapidly and slowly progressing disease

Machine Learning Prediction and Phyloanatomic Modeling of Viral Neuroadaptive Signatures in the Macaque Model of HIV-Mediated Neuropathology

In human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, virus replication in and adaptation to the central nervous system (CNS) can result in neurocognitive deficits in approximately 25% of patients with unsuppressed viremia. While no single viral mutation can be agreed upon as distinguishing the neuroadapted population, earlier studies have demonstrated that a machine learning (ML) approach could be applied to identify a collection of mutational signatures within the virus envelope glycoprotein (Gp120) predictive of disease. The S[imian]IV-infected macaque is a widely used animal model of HIV neuropathology, allowing in-depth tissue sampling infeasible for human patients. Yet, translational impact of the ML approach within the context of the macaque model has not been tested, much less the capacity for early prediction in other, noninvasive tissues. We applied the previously described ML approach to prediction of SIV-mediated encephalitis (SIVE) using gp120 sequences obtained from the CNS of animals with and without SIVE with 97% accuracy. The presence of SIVE signatures at earlier time points of infection in non-CNS tissues indicated these signatures cannot be used in a clinical setting; however, combined with protein structural mapping and statistical phylogenetic inference, results revealed common denominators associated with these signatures, including 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-d-glucopyranose structural interactions and high rate of alveolar macrophage (AM) infection. AMs were also determined to be the phyloanatomic source of cranial virus in SIVE animals, but not in animals that did not develop SIVE, implicating a role for these cells in the evolution of the signatures identified as predictive of both HIV and SIV neuropathology. IMPORTANCE HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders remain prevalent among persons living with HIV (PLWH) owing to our limited understanding of the contributing viral mechanisms and ability to predict disease onset. We have expanded on a machine learning method previously used on HIV genetic sequence data to predict neurocognitive impairment in PLWH to the more extensively sampled SIV-infected macaque model in order to (i) determine the translatability of the animal model and (ii) more accurately characterize the predictive capacity of the method. We identified eight amino acid and/or biochemical signatures in the SIV envelope glycoprotein, the most predominant of which demonstrated the potential for aminoglycan interaction characteristic of previously identified HIV signatures. These signatures were not isolated to specific points in time or to the central nervous system, limiting their use as an accurate clinical predictor of neuropathogenesis; however, statistical phylogenetic and signature pattern analyses implicate the lungs as a key player in the emergence of neuroadapted viruses.

HIV-1 and drug abuse comorbidity: Lessons learned from the animal models of NeuroHIV

Various research studies that have investigated the association between HIV infection and addiction underpin the role of various drugs of abuse in impairing immunological and non-immunological pathways of the host system, ultimately leading to augmentation of HIV infection and disease progression. These studies have included both in vitro and in vivo animal models wherein investigators have assessed the effects of various drugs on several disease parameters to decipher the impact of drugs on both HIV infection and progression of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). However, given the inherent limitations in the existing animal models of HAND, these investigations only recapitulated specific aspects of the disease but not the complex human syndrome. Despite the inability of HIV to infect rodents over the last 30 years, multiple strategies have been employed to develop several rodent models of HAND. While none of these models can accurately mimic the overall pathophysiology of HAND, they serve the purpose of modeling some unique aspects of HAND. This review provides an overview of various animal models used in the field and a careful evaluation of methodological strengths and limitations inherent in both the model systems and study designs to understand better how the various animal models complement one another.

Aged Chinese-origin rhesus macaques infected with SIV develop marked viremia in absence of clinical disease, inflammation or cognitive impairment

Background

Damage to the central nervous system during HIV infection can lead to variable neurobehavioral dysfunction termed HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). There is no clear consensus regarding the neuropathological or cellular basis of HAND. We sought to study the potential contribution of aging to the pathogenesis of HAND. Aged (range = 14.7–24.8 year) rhesus macaques of Chinese origin (RM-Ch) (n = 23) were trained to perform cognitive tasks. Macaques were then divided into four groups to assess the impact of SIVmac251 infection (n = 12) and combined antiretroviral therapy (CART) (5 infected; 5 mock-infected) on the execution of these tasks.

Results

Aged SIV-infected RM-Ch demonstrated significant plasma viremia and modest CSF viral loads but showed few clinical signs, no elevations of systemic temperature, and no changes in activity levels, platelet counts or weight. Concentrations of biomarkers of acute and chronic inflammation such as soluble CD14, CXCL10, IL-6 and TNF-α are known to be elevated following SIV infection of young adult macaques of several species, but concentrations of these biomarkers did not shift after SIV infection in aged RM-Ch and remained similar to mock-infected macaques. Neither acute nor chronic SIV infection or CART had a significant impact on accuracy, speed or percent completion in a sensorimotor test.

Conclusions

Viremia in the absence of a chronic elevated inflammatory response seen in some aged RM-Ch is reminiscent of SIV infection in natural disease resistant hosts. The absence of cognitive impairment during SIV infection in aged RM-Ch might be in part attributed to diminishment of some facets of the immunological response. Additional study encompassing species and age differences is necessary to substantiate this hypothesis.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12977-018-0400-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Effects of Morphine on Behavioral Task Performance in SIV-Infected Rhesus Macaques

The abuse of opiates such as morphine in synergy with HIV infection not only exacerbates neuropathogenesis but significantly impacts behavioral attributes in HIV infected subjects. Thus, the goal of the current study was to characterize behavioral perturbations in rhesus macaques subjected to chronic morphine and SIV infection. Specifically, we assessed three behavioral tasks: motor skill (MS), forelimb force (FFT) and progressive ratio (PR) tasks. After collecting baseline control data (44 weeks) and data during the morphine-only dependency period (26 weeks), a subset of animals were productively infected with neurovirulent strains of SIVmac (R71/E17) for an additional 33 weeks. A general pattern in the results is that behavioral decline occurred with high CSF viral loads but not necessarily with high plasma viral loads. Compared to saline controls, all treated animals showed significant decreases in performance on all three behavioral tasks during the morphine-only dependency period. During the post infection period, only the morphine plus SIV group showed a significant further decline and this only occurred for the MS task. Taken together, these data demonstrate a clear effect of morphine to produce behavioral deficits and also suggest that morphine can act synergistically with SIV/HIV to exacerbate behavioral deficits.

Tolerance to chronic delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) in rhesus macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency virus

Although Δ⁹-THC has been approved to treat anorexia and weight loss associated with AIDS, it may also reduce well-being by disrupting complex behavioral processes or enhancing HIV replication. To investigate these possibilities, four groups of male rhesus macaques were trained to respond under an operant acquisition and performance procedure, and administered vehicle or Δ⁹-THC before and after inoculation with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV(mac251), 100 TCID₅₀/ml, i.v.). Prior to chronic Δ⁹-THC and SIV inoculation, 0.032-0.32 mg/kg of Δ⁹-THC produced dose-dependent rate-decreasing effects and small, sporadic error-increasing effects in the acquisition and performance components in each subject. Following 28 days of chronic Δ⁹-THC (0.32 mg/kg, i.m.) or vehicle twice daily, delta-9-THC-treated subjects developed tolerance to the rate-decreasing effects, and this tolerance was maintained during the initial 7-12 months irrespective of SIV infection (i.e., +THC/-SIV, +THC/+SIV). Full necropsy was performed on all SIV subjects an average of 329 days post-SIV inoculation, with postmortem histopathology suggestive of a reduced frequency of CNS pathology as well as opportunistic infections in delta-9-THC-treated subjects. Chronic Δ⁹-THC also significantly reduced CB-1 and CB-2 receptor levels in the hippocampus, attenuated the expression of a proinflammatory cytokine (MCP-1), and did not increase viral load in plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, or brain tissue compared to vehicle-treated subjects with SIV. Together, these data indicate that chronic Δ⁹-THC produces tolerance to its behaviorally disruptive effects on complex tasks while not adversely affecting viral load or other markers of disease progression during the early stages of infection.

Rhesus macaque model of chronic opiate dependence and neuro-AIDS: longitudinal assessment of auditory brainstem responses and visual evoked potentials

Our work characterizes the effects of opiate (morphine) dependence on auditory brainstem and visual evoked responses in a rhesus macaque model of neuro-AIDS utilizing a chronic continuous drug delivery paradigm. The goal of this study was to clarify whether morphine is protective, or if it exacerbates simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-related systemic and neurological disease. Our model employs a macrophage tropic CD4/CCR5 coreceptor virus, SIV(mac)239 (R71/E17), which crosses the blood-brain barrier shortly after inoculation and closely mimics the natural disease course of human immunodeficiency virus infection. The cohort was divided into three groups: morphine only, SIV only, and SIV + morphine. Evoked potential (EP) abnormalities in subclinically infected macaques were evident as early as 8 weeks postinoculation. Prolongations in EP latencies were observed in SIV-infected macaques across all modalities. Animals with the highest cerebrospinal fluid viral loads and clinical disease showed more abnormalities than those with subclinical disease, confirming our previous work (Raymond et al., J Neurovirol 4:512-520, 1998; J Neurovirol 5:217-231, 1999; AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 16:1163-1173, 2000). Although some differences were observed in auditory and visual evoked potentials in morphine-treated compared to morphine-untreated SIV-infected animals, the effects were relatively small and not consistent across evoked potential type. However, morphine-treated animals with subclinical disease had a clear tendency toward higher virus loads in peripheral and central nervous system tissues (Marcario et al., J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 3:12-25, 2008) suggesting that if had been possible to follow all animals to end-stage disease, a clearer pattern of evoked potential abnormality might have emerged.

Behavioral and neurophysiological hallmarks of simian immunodeficiency virus infection in macaque monkeys

Macaque monkeys infected with various neurovirulent forms of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) represent highly effective models, not only of systemic acquired immunodeficiency virus (AIDS), but also neuroAIDS. Behavioral studies with this model have clearly established that SIV-infected monkeys show both cognitive and motor impairments resembling those that have been reported in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected humans. This paper combines data from a number of behavioral studies in SIV-infected macaque monkeys to obtain an overall estimate of the frequency of impairments in various motor and cognitive domains. The results were then compared to similar data from studies of HIV-infected humans. Whereas cognitive functions are most commonly impaired in HIV-infected humans, motor function is the domain most commonly impaired in SIV-infected monkeys. Electrophysiological studies in SIV-infected macaques have revealed deficits in motor-, somatosensory-, visual-, and auditory-evoked potentials that also resemble abnormalities in human HIV infection. Abnormalities in motor-evoked potentials were among the most common evoked potential deficits observed. Although differences in behavioral profiles of human HIV disease and SIV disease in monkeys exist, the results, nevertheless, provide strong validation for the use of macaque models for translational studies of the virology, immunology, pathophysiology, and treatment of neuroAIDS.

NeuroAIDS: characteristics and diagnosis of the neurological complications of AIDS

The neurological complications of AIDS (NeuroAIDS) include neurocognitive impairment and HIV-associated dementia (HAD; also known as AIDS dementia and HIV encephalopathy). HAD is the most significant and devastating central nervous system (CNS) complications associated with HIV infection. Despite recent advances in our knowledge of the clinical features, pathogenesis, and neurobiological aspects of HAD, it remains a formidable scientific and therapeutic challenge. An understanding of the mechanisms of HIV neuroinvasion, CNS proliferation, and HAD pathogenesis provide a basis for the interpretation of the diagnostic features of HAD and its milder form, HIV-associated minor cognitive/motor disorder (MCMD). Current diagnostic strategies are associated with significant limitations, but it is hoped that the use of biomarkers may assist researchers and clinicians in predicting the onset of the disease process and in evaluating the effects of new therapies.

Effect of morphine on the neuropathogenesis of SIVmac infection in Indian Rhesus Macaques

Morphine is known to prevent the development of cell-mediated immune (CMI) responses and enhance expression of the CCR5 receptor in monocyte macrophages. We undertook a study to determine the effect of morphine on the neuropathogenesis and immunopathogenesis of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection in Indian Rhesus Macaques. Hypothetically, the effect of morphine would be to prevent the development of CMI responses to SIV and to enhance the infection in macrophages. Sixteen Rhesus Macaques were divided into three experimental groups: M (morphine only, n = 5), VM (morphine + SIV, n = 6), and V (SIV only, n = 5). Animals in groups M and VM were given 2.5 mg/kg of morphine sulfate, four times daily, for up to 59 weeks. Groups VM and V were inoculated with SIVmacR71/17E 26 weeks after the beginning of morphine administration. Morphine prevented the development of enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot-forming cell CMI responses in contrast to virus control animals, all of which developed CMI. Whereas morphine treatment had no effect on viremia, cerebrospinal fluid viral titers or survival over the time course of the study, the drug was associated with a tendency for greater build-up of virus in the brains of infected animals. Histopathological changes in the brains of animals that developed disease were of a demyelinating type in the VM animals compared to an encephalitic type in the V animals. This difference may have been associated with the immunosuppressive effect of the drug in inhibiting CMI responses.

Cognitive and motor deficits associated with HIV-2(287) infection in infant pigtailed macaques: a nonhuman primate model of pediatric neuro-AIDS

Lentivirus-infected nonhuman primates exhibit behavioral and neurological pathology similar to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected humans and offer a means to examine the effects of lentivirus infection while controlling for confounding factors inherent in human populations. The purpose of this study was to examine cognitive and motor development in infant macaques vertically infected with HIV-2287. Subjects were 20 infant pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina); 8 controls born to uninfected dams, and 12 infants whose dams had been inoculated and infected with HIV-2287 in the third trimester of pregnancy. Eight of these pregnancies had undergone surgical procedures in the form of maternal amniotic catheters or maternal amniotic and fetal carotid artery and jugular vein catheters. Data indicated that catheterization had little or no impact on behavioral development. Seven infants were vertically infected (as measured by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) at birth) and five were not infected (as measured by PCR and coculture on repeated testing). Infected infants attained cognitive and motor milestones at significantly later ages than controls. Uninfected infants, born to infected dams, attained developmental milestones at later ages than controls on all tasks, but this reached statistical significance only for the Fine Motor Task. Attainment of milestones was not correlated with viral dose, maternal CD4+ levels at parturition or infant viral RNA levels at birth. Attainment of milestones was negatively correlated with infants' proportions of CD4+ lymphocytes at birth and significantly correlated with proportions of CD4+ lymphocytes 2 weeks after birth, indicating poorer performance in those infants with a more rapid CD4+ depletion. These cognitive and motor deficits closely resemble those observed in human infants and children infected with HIV and indicate that HIV-2287-infected infant macaques represent an excellent model of pediatric neuro-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (neuroAIDS).

Severe subcortical degeneration in macaques infected with neurovirulent simian immunodeficiency virus

Infection with human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans, causes a spectrum of neuropathology that includes alterations in behavior, changes in evoked potentials, and neuronal degeneration. In the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) model of HIV infection, affected monkeys show clinical symptoms and neurological complications that mimic those observed in human neuro-AIDS. To investigate the relationship between morphological correlates and neurophysiological deficits, unbiased stereology was used to assess total neuron number, volume, and neuronal density for all neurons in the globus pallidus (GP) and for dopamine (DA)-containing neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) in eight macaques inoculated with macrophage-tropic, neurovirulent SIV (SIVmac R71/17E), and five control animals. There was a significant difference between rapid progressors and controls for both neuron number (P < .01) and neuronal density (P < .05) in the GP, and for neuron number (P < .05) in the SN. Neuron loss ranged from 6% to 70% in the GP and from 10% to 50% in the SN. Neuropathological analyses confirmed neuroAIDS-like changes in brain, including microglial nodules, extensive perivascular cuffing and/or the presence of multinucleated giant cells, and alterations in neuronal morphology in the majority of the rapid progressors. By comparison, slow progressors showed little, if any, neuropathology. These neuropathological changes in SIV-infected monkeys indicate that neuron death and morphological alterations in the basal ganglia may contribute to the motor impairments reported in the SIV model and, by analogy, in the subset of patients afflicted with motor impairment in human neuro-AIDS.

Impaired performance on a rhesus monkey neuropsychological testing battery following simian immunodeficiency virus infection

Infection with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in macaques provides an excellent model of AIDS including HIV-induced central nervous system (CNS) pathology and cognitive/behavioral impairment. Recently a behavioral test battery has been developed for macaques based on the CANTAB human neuropsychological testing battery. As with human neuropsychological batteries, different tasks are thought to involve different neural substrates, and therefore performance profiles may assess function in particular brain regions. Ten rhesus monkeys were infected with SIV after being trained on two or more of the battery tasks addressing memory (delayed nonmatching to sample, DNMS), spatial working memory (using a self-ordered spatial search task, SOSS), motivation (progressive-ratio, PR), reaction time (RT), and/or fine motor skills (bimanual motor skill, BMS). Performance was compared to that of 9 uninfected monkeys. Overall, some aspect of performance was impaired in all 10 monkeys following infection. Consistent with results in human AIDS patients, individual performance was impaired most often on battery tasks thought to be sensitive to frontostriatal dopaminergic functioning such as SOSS, RT, and BMS. These results further demonstrate the similarity of behavioral impairment produced by SIV and HIV on homologous behavioral tests, and establish the utility of the testing battery for further investigations into the CNS mechanisms of the reported behavioral changes.

Central nervous system correlates of behavioral deficits following simian immunodeficiency virus infection

Despite the high incidence of cognitive and motor impairment in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) patients, the mechanisms of AIDS-related central nervous system (CNS) pathology are not completely understood. Infection with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in macaques provides an excellent model of AIDS, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-induced CNS pathology and cognitive/behavioral impairment. Co-inoculation with two SIV strains, SIV/17E-Fr and SIV/DeltaB670, accelerates SIV CNS disease, producing SIV encephalitis in over 90% of pig-tailed macaques within 3 months. In the present study, this SIV model was employed to identify cellular and viral correlates of behavioral impairment following SIV infection. Measures of psychomotor speed (simple reaction time), fine motor control (bimanual motor task), and general motor activity (home cage movement) were all adversely affected by SIV disease. Prior to euthanasia, performance was significantly impaired in both a simple reaction time task in 6 of 12 monkeys and a bimanual motor task in 5 of 6 monkeys. All monkeys evaluated (11 of 11) showed significant reductions in spontaneous motor activity. Significant correlations were found between impaired performance on the bimanual motor test and axonal damage (accumulation of beta-amyloid precursor protein in the corpus callosum) as well as increased microglial activation and macrophage infiltration (levels of CD68 and Ham56 immunostaining). These results suggest that axonal damage is related to the behavioral impairment induced by infection with SIV. The axonal damage may result from neuroimmune responses, including microglial and macrophage activation. Therefore, axonal damage may be a morphologic manifestation of neuronal dysfunction that underlies development of behavioral impairment in HIV/SIV CNS infection.

Outcome of patients with HIV-1-related cognitive impairment on highly active antiretroviral therapy

OBJECTIVE

To examine the impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on the outcome of HIV-1-related cognitive impairments using a neuropsychological (NP) battery to assess separately the psychomotor, executive function and memory fields.

DESIGN

A longitudinal study of HIV-1-infected patients based on serial NP tests in a Paris University Hospital.

METHODS

A group of 91 HIV-1-infected patients, of whom 47 were already taking HAART at their first NP examination, were initially categorized as cognitively impaired (n = 53) or non-impaired (n = 38) and underwent one to six serial NP batteries (mean follow-up 12.3+/-8.3 months). Generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used to evaluate performance in a given NP test according to the number of days on HAART.

RESULTS

Despite a 25% mortality rate among patients who had cognitive impairment at their first NP examination, GEE showed a positive relationship between the duration of HAART and cognitive performance. Performance in psychomotor tests (e.g. Purdue Pegboard dominant hand) improved continuously during the study period, while memory test performance (e.g. Grober and Buschke free recall) tended to reach a plateau.

CONCLUSIONS

HAART improves subcortical cognitive functions during the first year of treatment. Distinct neuropathological mechanisms appear to underlie psychomotor and memory dysfunctions in AIDS.

Sensory evoked potentials in SIV-infected monkeys with rapidly and slowly progressing disease

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) infects the central nervous system (CNS) early in the course of disease progression and leads to some form of neurological disease in 40-60% of cases. Both symptomatic and asymptomatic HIV-infected subjects also show abnormalities in evoked potentials. As part of an effort to further validate an animal model of the neurological disease associated with lentiviral infection, we recorded multimodal sensory evoked potentials (EPs) from nine rhesus macaques infected with passaged strains of SIVmac (R71/E17), prior to and at 1 month intervals following inoculation. The latencies of forelimb and hindlimb somatosensory evoked potentials (SEP) and flash visual evoked potentials (VEP) were measured. Within 14 weeks of inoculation, all but two animals had progressed to end-stage disease (rapid progressors). The two animals with slowly progressing disease (AQ15 and AQ94) had postinoculation life spans of 109 and 87 weeks, respectively. No significant changes were observed in evoked potentials recorded during the control period or at any time in the animals with slowly progressing disease. However, all of the monkeys with rapidly progressing disease exhibited increases in latency for at least one evoked potential type. The overall mean increases in somatosensory and visual evoked potential peak latencies for the rapid progressors were 22.4 and 25.3%, respectively. For comparison, the changes in slow progressors were not significant (1.8 and -1.9%, respectively). These results, coupled with our previous finding of slowed motor evoked potentials in the same cohort of macaques (Raymond et al.: J Neurovirol 1999;5:217-231), demonstrate a broad and somewhat variable pattern of viral injury to both sensory and motor system structures, resembling the findings in HIV-infected humans. These results coupled with our earlier work demonstrating cognitive and motor behavioral impairments in the same monkeys support the use of the SIVmac-infected rhesus macaque as a model of AIDS-related neurological disease.

Microglial activation and neurological symptoms in the SIV model of NeuroAIDS: association of MHC-II and MMP-9 expression with behavioral deficits and evoked potential changes

HIV-1 causes cognitive and motor deficits and HIV encephalitis (HIVE) in a significant proportion of AIDS patients. Neurological impairment and HIVE are thought to result from release of cytokines and other harmful substances from infected, activated microglia. In this study, the quantitative relationship between microglial activation and neurological impairment was examined in the simian immunodeficiency model of HIVE. Macaque monkeys were infected with a passaged, neurovirulent strain of simian immunodeficiency virus, SIV(mac)239(R71/17E). In concurrent studies, functional impairment was assessed by motor and auditory brainstem evoked potentials and by measurements of cognitive and motor behavioral deficits. Brain tissue was examined by immunohistochemistry using two markers of microglia activation, MHC-II and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9). The inoculated animals formed two groups: rapid progressors, which survived 6-14 weeks postinoculation, and slow progressors, which survived 87-109 weeks. In the rapid progressors, two patterns of MHC-II expression were present: (1) a widely disseminated pattern of MHC-II expressing microglia and microglial nodules in cortical gray matter and subcortical white matter, and (2) a more focal pattern in which MHC-II expressing microglia were concentrated into white matter. Animals exhibiting both patterns of microglial activation showed mild to severe changes in cognitive and motor behavior and evoked potentials. All rapid progressors showed expression of MMP-9 in microglia located in subcortical white matter. In the slow progressors MHC-II and MMP-9 staining was similar to uninoculated control macaques, and there was little or no evidence of HIVE. These animals showed behavioral deficits at the end of the disease course, but little changes in evoked potentials. Thus, increases in MHC-II and MMP-9 expression are associated with development of cognitive and motor deficits, alterations in evoked potentials, and rapid disease progression.