Differential distribution of antibodies to different viruses in young animals in the free-ranging rhesus macaques of Cayo Santiago

Towards a comprehensive view of the herpes B virus

Herpes B virus is a biosafety level 4 pathogen and widespread in its natural host species, macaques. Although most infected monkeys show asymptomatic or mild symptoms, human infections with this virus can cause serious neurological symptoms or fatal encephalomyelitis with a high mortality rate. Herpes B virus can be latent in the sensory ganglia of monkeys and humans, often leading to missed diagnoses. Furthermore, the herpes B virus has extensive antigen crossover with HSV, SA8, and HVP-2, causing false-positive results frequently. Timely diagnosis, along with methods with sensitivity and specificity, are urgent for research on the herpes B virus. The lack of a clear understanding of the host invasion and life cycle of the herpes B virus has led to slow progress in the development of effective vaccines and drugs. This review discusses the research progress and problems of the epidemiology of herpes B virus, detection methods and therapy, hoping to inspire further investigation into important factors associated with transmission of herpes B virus in macaques and humans, and arouse the development of effective vaccines or drugs, to promote the establishment of specific pathogen-free (SPF) monkeys and protect humans to effectively avoid herpes B virus infection.

Multi-site proficiency testing for validation and standardization of assays to detect specific pathogen-free viruses, coronaviruses, and other agents in nonhuman primates

In efforts to increase rigor and reproducibility, the USA National Primate Research Centers (NPRCs) have focused on qualification of reagents, cross-laboratory validations, and proficiency testing for methods to detect infectious agents and accompanying immune responses in nonhuman primates. The pathogen detection working group, comprised of laboratory scientists, colony managers, and leaders from the NPRCs, has championed the effort to produce testing that is reliable and consistent across laboratories. Through multi-year efforts with shared proficiency samples, testing percent agreement has increased from as low as 67.1% for SRV testing in 2010 to 92.1% in 2019. The 2019 average agreement for the four basic SPF agents improved to >96% (86.5% BV, 98.9 SIV, 92.1 SRV, and 97.0 STLV). As new pathogens such as SARS coronavirus type 2 emerge, these steps can now be quickly replicated to develop and implement new assays that ensure rigor, reproducibly, and quality for NHP pathogen detection.

Specific pathogen free macaque colonies: a review of principles and recent advances for viral testing and colony management

Specific pathogen free (SPF) macaques provide valuable animal models for biomedical research. In 1989, the National Center for Research Resources [now Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP)] of the National Institutes of Health initiated experimental research contracts to establish and maintain SPF colonies. The derivation and maintenance of SPF macaque colonies is a complex undertaking requiring knowledge of the biology of the agents for exclusion and normal physiology and behavior of macaques, application of the latest diagnostic technology, facilitiy management, and animal husbandry. This review provides information on the biology of the four viral agents targeted for exclusion in ORIP SPF macaque colonies, describes current state-of-the-art viral diagnostic algorithms, presents data from proficiency testing of diagnostic assays between laboratories at institutions participating in the ORIP SPF program, and outlines management strategies for maintaining the integrity of SPF colonies using results of diagnostic testing as a guide to decision making.

Herpesviruses--a zoonotic threat?

Herpesviruses are highly host specific and share a long synchronous evolution with their hosts. Only in rare cases, species barriers fall and allow animal to human or human to animal transmission. Among the zoonotic herpesviruses, Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 is the most significant and can be transmitted from macaques to human. Conversely, Human herpesvirus 1 is capable of causing severe disease in primates. Besides those two examples, there are several herpesviruses with a certainly limited or only suspected ability to cross species barriers. Those include Saimiriine herpesvirus 2, Phocid herpesvirus 2, Equid herpesvirus 1, Epstein-Barr Virus, Marek's disease virus, and Pseudorabies virus. Concerning xenotransplantations, porcine gammaherpesviruses must be considered as a zoonotic threat.

Impact of infections and normal flora in nonhuman primates on drug development

Preclinical safety studies that are required for the marketing approval of a pharmaceutical include single and repeat dose studies in rodent and nonrodent species. The use of nonhuman primates (NHPs), primarily macaques, as the nonrodent species has increased in recent years, in part due to the increase in development of biopharmaceuticals and immunomodulatory agents. Depending on the source of the macaques, they may vary in genetic background, normal flora, and/or the incidence of preexisting pathogens and inflammatory conditions. As the use of alternative sources of macaques rises to meet the increased demand for these animals in biomedical research, the toxicologic pathologist should be well versed in NHP pathology to adequately assess potential drug-related effects in the context of these variations. Such knowledge is particularly important in studies involving immunomodulatory drugs as the toxicologic pathologist should anticipate which type(s) of infections are most likely to arise depending on which arm of the immune system is modulated. The purpose of this review is to discuss the immunosuppressive (e.g., simian type D retrovirus, simian immunodeficiency virus) and opportunistic viruses (e.g., cytomegalovirus, adenovirus, simian virus 40, rhesus rhadinovirus, and lymphocryptovirus), primary and opportunistic bacteria (e.g., Campylobacter spp., Shigella flexneri, Yersinia enterocolitica, Moraxella catarrhalis, Mycobacterium avium complex, enteropathogenic Escherichia coli), and parasites (e.g., Plasmodium spp., Schistosoma spp., Strongyloides fulleborni) that have had the most profound impact on the interpretation of drug safety studies and/or that may reemerge as alternative sources of NHPs are used for drug safety studies.