Recovery training in cyclists: ergometric, hormonal and psychometric findings

Functional Overreaching in Endurance Athletes: A Necessity or Cause for Concern?

There are variable responses to short-term periods of increased training load in endurance athletes, whereby some athletes improve without deleterious effects on performance, while others show diminished exercise performance for a period of days to months. The time course of the decrement in performance and subsequent restoration, or super compensation, has been used to distinguish between the different stages of the fitness-fatigue adaptive continuum termed functional overreaching (FOR), non-functional overreaching (NFOR) or overtraining syndrome. The short-term transient training-induced decrements in performance elicited by increases in training load (i.e. FOR) are thought be a sufficient and necessary component of a training program and are often deliberately induced in training to promote meaningful physiological adaptations and performance super-compensation. Despite the supposition that deliberately inducing FOR in athletes may be necessary to achieve performance super-compensation, FOR has been associated with various negative cardiovascular, hormonal and metabolic consequences. Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated dampened training and performance adaptations in FOR athletes compared to non-overreached athletes who completed the same training program or the same relative increase in training load. However, this is not always the case and a number of studies have also demonstrated substantial performance super-compensation in athletes who were classified as being FOR. It is possible that there are a number of contextual factors that may influence the metabolic consequences associated with FOR and classifying this training-induced state of fatigue based purely on a decrement in performance may be an oversimplification. Here, the most recent research on FOR in endurance athletes will be critically evaluated to determine (1) if there is sufficient evidence to indicate that inducing a state of FOR is necessary and required to induce a performance super-compensation; (2) the metabolic consequences that are associated with FOR; (3) strategies that may prevent the negative consequences of overreaching.

Biomarkers of Physiological Responses to Periods of Intensified, Non-Resistance-Based Exercise Training in Well-Trained Male Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Intensified training is important for inducing adaptations to improve athletic performance, but detrimental performance effects can occur if prescribed inappropriately. Monitoring biomarker responses to training may inform changes in training load to optimize performance.

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to identify biomarkers associated with altered exercise performance following intensified training.

METHODS

Embase, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Scopus and SPORTDiscus were searched up until September 2017. Included articles were peer reviewed and reported on biomarkers collected at rest in well-trained male athletes before and after periods of intensified training.

RESULTS

The full text of 161 articles was reviewed, with 59 included (708 participants) and 42 (550 participants) meta-analysed. In total, 118 biomarkers were evaluated, with most being cellular communication and immunity markers (n = 54). Studies most frequently measured cortisol (n = 34), creatine kinase (n = 25) and testosterone (n = 20). Many studies reported decreased immune cell counts following intensified training, irrespective of performance. Moreover, reduced performance was associated with a decrease in neutrophils (d = - 0.57; 95% confidence interval (CI) - 1.07 to - 0.07) and glutamine (d = - 0.37; 95% CI - 0.43 to - 0.31) and an increase in urea concentration (d = 0.80; 95% CI 0.30 to 1.30). In contrast, increased performance was associated with an increased testosterone:cortisol ratio (d = 0.89; 95% CI 0.54 to 1.24). All remaining biomarkers showed no consistent patterns of change with performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Many biomarkers were altered with intensified training but not in a manner related to changes in exercise performance. Neutrophils, glutamine, urea and the testosterone:cortisol ratio exhibited some evidence of directional changes that corresponded with performance changes therefore indicating potential to track performance. Additional investigations of the potential for these markers to track altered performance are warranted.

Optimizing recovery to support multi-evening cycling competition performance

Road criterium and track bicycle racing occur at high speeds, demand repeated high power outputs, last 10-90 min, and offer little chance for recovery after the event. Consecutive evenings of criterium and track racing are respectively known as speed-week or six-day events and take place in evening hours over the course of a week. Given the schedule and timing of these competitions, return to homeostasis can be compromised. No recommendations exist on how to optimize recovery for cyclists participating in these types of repeated evening competitions. Criterium and track cyclists spend considerable time, near and above the individual lactate threshold and therefore mostly utilize carbohydrate as their chief energy substrate. Henceforth, pre - and post-race nutrition and hydration is examined and recommendations are brought forward for carbohydrate, protein, and fluid intake. As evening high-intensity exercise perturbs sleep, strategies to optimize sleep are discussed and recommendations for an optimal sleep environment are given. Active recovery is examined, and the benefits of a short duration low intensity exercise reviewed. Passive recovery methods such as compression garments and cold water immersion are recommended, while evidence for massage, pneumatic compression devices, and neuromuscular electrical stimulation is still lacking. Optimizing recovery strategies will facilitate a return to the resting state following strenuous night competition.

Association Between the 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Status and Physical Performance in Healthy Recreational Athletes

Molecular and clinical studies have linked vitamin D (vitD) deficiency to several aspects of muscle performance. For this retrospective cross-sectional study data from 297 male (M) and 284 female (F) healthy recreational athletes were used to evaluate the prevalence of vitD deficiency in athletes living in Austria and to determine whether serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) correlates with maximal (P_max) and submaximal physical performance (P_submax) measured on a treadmill ergometer. The data were controlled for age, season, weekly training hours (WTH), body mass index (BMI) and smoking status. 96 M and 75 F had 25(OH)D levels ≤ 20 ng/mL. 25(OH)D levels showed seasonal variations, but no seasonal differences in P_max and P_submax were detected. M with 25(OH)D levels ≤ 20 ng/mL had significantly lower P_submax (p = 0.045) than those with normal levels. In F no significant differences in P_max or P_submax were detected. Stepwise multiple regression analysis including all covariates revealed significant correlations between 25(OH)D levels and P_max (β = 0.138, p = 0.003) and P_submax (β = 0.152, p = 0.002) in M. Interestingly, for F significant correlations between 25(OH)D and both P_max and P_submax disappeared after adding WTH to the model. In conclusion, our data suggest that 25(OH)D status is associated with physical performance especially in M, while in F, WTH and BMI seem to affect the correlation.

Physiological and Psychological Adaptations of Trained Cyclists to Spring Cycling Camps

The purpose of our study was to assess physiological adaptations and measure mood outcomes following a cycling training camp in competitive athletes. Fourteen competitive athletes (8 males, 6 females) performed 2 incremental tests to exhaustion before and after a training camp. Volume and intensity (load) of the training regimen were recorded. Submaximal and maximal metabolic data were analysed, as well as economy variables (gross mechanical efficiency and cycling economy). Skeletal muscle adaptations were assessed using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). For both genders (n = 14), peak power output, peak power output-W/kg ratio and peak power output-B[La] were significantly increased (p < 0.05) after the cycling training camp (p < 0.05). Significant increases occurred for gross mechanical efficiency measured at the lactate threshold (+4.9%) and at the same precamp lactate threshold power output (+2.9%). At the lactate threshold and Post Camp Lactate Threshold Power, cycling economy increased by 5.2 and 2.9%, respectively (p < 0.05). These power measurements were significantly correlated with individual fluctuations in deoxyhaemoglobin in the vastus lateralis for male cyclists only. Profile of Mood State questionnaire results showed that subcategories “Tension-Anxiety”, “Confusion”, “Fatigue” and “Total Global Score” significantly decreased after the training camp. Cycling training camps were associated with positive adaptations (increased cycling economy, gross mechanical efficiency and power output) as well as some mental benefits. This indicates that despite some significant physiological adaptations participants probably did not overreach during their CTC.

The Manipulation of Pace within Endurance Sport

In any athletic event, the ability to appropriately distribute energy is essential to prevent premature fatigue prior to the completion of the event. In sport science literature this is termed "pacing." Within the past decade, research aiming to better understand the underlying mechanisms influencing the selection of an athlete's pacing during exercise has dramatically increased. It is suggested that pacing is a combination of anticipation, knowledge of the end-point, prior experience and sensory feedback. In order to better understand the role each of these factors have in the regulation of pace, studies have often manipulated various conditions known to influence performance such as the feedback provided to participants, the starting strategy or environmental conditions. As with all research there are several factors that should be considered in the interpretation of results from these studies. Thus, this review aims at discussing the pacing literature examining the manipulation of: (i) energy expenditure and pacing strategies, (ii) kinematics or biomechanics, (iii) exercise environment, and (iv) fatigue development.

Effects of training-induced fatigue on pacing patterns in 40-km cycling time trials

INTRODUCTION

In some endurance sports, athletes complete several competitions within a short period, resulting in accumulated fatigue. It is unclear whether fatigued athletes choose the same pacing pattern (PP) as when they have recovered.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to analyze effects of fatigue on PP of cyclists during a 40-km time trial (TT).

METHODS

Twenty-three male cyclists (28.8 ± 7.6 yr) completed three 40-km TT on a cycle ergometer. TT were conducted before (TT1) and after (TT2) a 6-d training period. A third TT was carried out after 72 h of recovery (TT3). Training days consisted of two cycling sessions: mornings, 1 h at 95% of lactate threshold or 3 × 5 × 30 s all-out sprint; afternoons, 3 h at 80% individual anaerobic threshold. Four-kilometer split times (min) and RPE were recorded during TT.

RESULTS

Performance decreased from TT1 to TT2 (65.7 ± 3.5 vs 66.7 ± 3.3 min; P < 0.05) and increased from TT2 to TT3 (66.7 ± 3.3 vs 65.5 ± 3.3 min; P < 0.01). PP showed a significant difference between TT1 and TT2 (P < 0.001) as well as between TT2 and TT3 (P < 0.01). PP in TT1 and TT3 showed no significant difference (P > 0.05). In TT1 and TT3, cyclists started faster in the first 4 km compared with TT2. RPE course showed no significant difference between TT (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Fatigue reversibly changes the PP of cyclists during a 40-km TT. Participants reduced their power output until premature exhaustion seemed very unlikely. This supports the assumption that pacing includes a combination of anticipation and feedback mechanisms.

The Acute Effect of Concurrent Training on Running Performance Over 6 Days

PURPOSE

This study examined the effects of strength training on alternating days and endurance training on consecutive days on running performance for 6 days.

METHODS

Sixteen male and 8 female moderately trained individuals were evenly assigned into concurrent-training (CCT) and strength-training (ST) groups. The CCT group undertook strength training on alternating days combined with endurance training on consecutive days for 6 days. One week later, the CCT group conducted 3 consecutive days of endurance training only to determine whether fatigue would be induced with endurance training alone (CCT-Con). Endurance training was undertaken to induce endurance-training stimulus and to measure the cost of running (CR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and time to exhaustion (TTE). The ST group undertook 3 strength-training sessions on alternating days. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), rating of muscle soreness (RMS), and rating of muscle fatigue (RMF) were collected prior to each strength and endurance session.

RESULTS

For the CCT group, small differences were primarily found in CR and RPE (ES = 0.17-0.41). However, moderate-to-large reductions were found for TTE and MVC (ES = 0.65-2.00), whereas large increases in RMS and RMF (ES = 1.23-2.49) were found prior to each strength- and endurance-training session. Small differences were found in MVC for the ST group (ES = 0.11) and during CCT-Con for the CCT group (ES = 0.15-0.31).

CONCLUSION

Combining strength training on alternating days with endurance training on consecutive days impairs MVC and running performance at maximal effort and increases RMS and RMF over 6 days.

Stress responses to short-term intensified and reduced training in competitive weightlifters

We sought to identify and evaluate the tolerance to, and consequences of, short-term variations in training load in competitive weightlifters. Seven international-level lifters performed 1 week of initial training followed by 2 weeks of intensified (INT: +100%, 36.5 ± 11.3 × 10(3)  kg/week) and 1 week of subsequently reduced (RED: -25%) training within their annual program. After INT, but not RED, 90 min of weightlifting increased mRNA levels of chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 4 (CCL4), chemokine (C-X-C motif) receptor 4 (CXCR4) and cellular stress-associated DNA-damage-inducible transcript 4 (DDIT4) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells by 40-240%. Resting- and weightlifting-induced changes in plasma protein carbonyls, indicative of oxidative stress, but not pro-inflammatory CCL4 concentrations differed between INT and RED. Symptoms of stress (Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes questionnaire) were reported as worse than normal more frequently during INT and RED than initial training. Global (negative) mood state increased during INT and declined during RED. Maximal snatch (-4.3 ± 3.7%) and vertical jump (-7.2 ± 6.5%), but not clean and jerk, were reduced after INT and restored after RED. Chemokine signaling may thus be part of the stress response to intense weightlifting and short-term reductions in training load support recovery from periodic INT training in weightlifters.

The effect of short-term interval training during the competitive season on physical fitness and signs of fatigue: a crossover trial in high-level youth football players

PURPOSE

To analyze performance and fatigue effects of small-sided games (SSG) vs high-intensity interval training (HIIT) performed during a 4-wk in-season period in high-level youth football.

METHODS

Nineteen players from 4 youth teams (16.5 [SD 0.8] y, 1.79 [0.06] m, 70.7 [5.6] kg) of the 2 highest German divisions completed the study. Teams were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 training sequences (2 endurance sessions per wk): One training group started with SSG, whereas the other group conducted HIIT during the first half of the competitive season. After the winter break, training programs were changed between groups. Before and after the training periods the following tests were completed: the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes, creatine kinase and urea concentrations, vertical-jump height (countermovement jump [CMJ], drop jump), straight sprint, agility, and an incremental field test to determine individual anaerobic threshold (IAT).

RESULTS

Significant time effects were observed for IAT (+1.3%, η(p)(2) = .31), peak heart rate (-1.8%, η(p)(2) = .45), and CMJ (-2.3%, η(p)(2) = .27), with no significant interaction between groups (P > .30). Players with low baseline IAT values (+4.3%) showed greater improvements than those with high initial values (± 0.0%). A significant decrease was found for total recovery (-5.0%, η(p)(2) = .29), and an increase was found for urea concentration (+9.2%, η(p)(2) = .44).

CONCLUSION

Four weeks of in-season endurance training can lead to relevant improvements in endurance capacity. The decreases in CMJ height and total-recovery score together with the increase in urea concentration might be interpreted as early signs of fatigue. Thus, the danger of overtaxing players should be considered.

Effect of Magnolia officinalis and Phellodendron amurense (Relora®) on cortisol and psychological mood state in moderately stressed subjects

Background

Magnolia (Magnolia officinalis) and Phellodendron (Phellodendron amurense) barks are medicinal plants commonly used as traditional remedies for reducing stress and anxiety. Modern dietary supplements are intended to induce relaxation and reduce stress as well as stress-related eating. Previous studies have shown the combination of Magnolia/Phellodendron (MP) to reduce both cortisol exposure and the perception of stress/anxiety, while improving weight loss in subjects with stress-related eating. Competitive athletes are “stressed” by their intense exercise regimens in addition to their normal activities of daily living and thus may benefit from a natural therapy intended to modulate baseline perceptions of stress and stress hormone exposure.

Methods

We assessed salivary cortisol exposure and psychological mood state in 56 subjects (35 men and 21 women) screened for moderate stress and supplemented with a standardized/patented MP combination (Relora®, Next Pharmaceuticals) or Placebo for 4 weeks.

Results

After 4 weeks of supplementation, salivary cortisol exposure was significantly (p<0.05) lower (−18%) in the Relora group compared to Placebo. Compared to Placebo, the Relora group had significantly better (p<0.05) mood state parameters, including lower indices of Overall Stress (−11%), Tension (−13%), Depression (−20%), Anger (−42%), Fatigue (−31%), and Confusion (−27%), and higher indices of Global Mood State (+11%) and Vigor (+18%).

Conclusion

These results indicate that daily supplementation with a combination of Magnolia bark extract and Phellodendron bark extract (Relora®) reduces cortisol exposure and perceived daily stress, while improving a variety of mood state parameters, including lower fatigue and higher vigor. These results suggest an effective natural approach to modulating the detrimental health effects of chronic stress in moderately stressed adults. Future studies should examine the possible performance and recovery benefits of Relora supplementation in athletes overstressed by the physical and psychological demands of training and competition.

Natural bodybuilding competition preparation and recovery: a 12-month case study

Bodybuilding is a sport in which competitors are judged on muscular appearance. This case study tracked a drug-free male bodybuilder (age 26-27 y) for the 6 mo before and after a competition.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to provide the most comprehensive physiological profile of bodybuilding competition preparation and recovery ever compiled.

METHODS

Cardiovascular parameters, body composition, strength, aerobic capacity, critical power, mood state, resting energy expenditure, and hormonal and other blood parameters were evaluated.

RESULTS

Heart rate decreased from 53 to 27 beats/min during preparation and increased to 46 beats/min within 1 mo after competition. Brachial blood pressure dropped from 132/69 to 104/56 mmHg during preparation and returned to 116/64 mmHg at 6 mo after competition. Percent body fat declined from 14.8% to 4.5% during preparation and returned to 14.6% during recovery. Strength decreased during preparation and did not fully recover during 6 months of recovery. Testosterone declined from 9.22 to 2.27 ng/mL during preparation and returned back to the baseline level, 9.91 ng/mL, after competition. Total mood disturbance increased from 6 to 43 units during preparation and recovered to 4 units 6 mo after competition.

CONCLUSIONS

This case study provides a thorough documentation of the physiological changes that occurred during natural bodybuilding competition and recovery.