Effects of long-term use of benzodiazepines on gait and standing balance in the elderly

Fall risk-increasing drugs and gait performance in community-dwelling older adults: A systematic review

PURPOSE

Medication use, and gait impairment are two major risk factors for falls in older adults. There are several mechanisms linking fall risk-increasing drugs (FRIDs) and increased fall risk. One pathway involves gait performance as an intermediate variable. It is plausible that FRIDs indirectly increase fall risk by causing gait impairment. The purpose of this review was to systematically review the existing evidence on the association between FRIDs and gait performance in community-dwelling older adults without neurological movement disorders.

METHODS

Two searches were performed using MeSH terms and keywords in the electronic databases MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL and grey literature. We included clinical trials and observational studies that assessed the association between a FRID class and any quantitative measure of gait performance. Quality assessment was performed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale for observational studies and the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for clinical trials. Study characteristics and findings were summarized in a descriptive approach for each drug class.

RESULTS

A total of 11,197 studies were retrieved from both searches at the first step and a total of 23 studies met the final inclusion criteria. Fourteen studies assessed the association between psychotropic FRIDs and gait performance and nine assessed cardiovascular FRIDs. Four out of five studies found that drugs with sedative properties are associated with reduced gait speed in older adults. Three out of four studies found no association between statin use and gait speed. There is insufficient evidence on the association between FRIDs and other gait performance measures.

CONCLUSION

Caution should be taken when prescribing drugs with sedative properties to older adults at risk of falls. Further research is required to assess the impact of the use FRIDs on gait performance measures other than gait speed.

Association between the use of benzodiazepines and opioids with the risk of falls and hip fractures in older adults

ABSTRACTBackground:To determine the association between the use of opioids and benzodiazepines and the risk of falls with hip fracture in populations older than 65 years in Colombia.

METHODS

A case-control study with patients older than 65 years with diagnosis of hip fracture. Two controls were obtained per case. The drugs dispensed in the previous 30 days were identified. Sociodemographic, diagnostic, pharmacological (opioids and benzodiazepines), and polypharmacy variables were analyzed. A logistic regression model was used to analyze the risk of fall with hip fracture while using these drugs.

RESULTS

We included 287 patients with hip fractures and 574 controls. There was a female predominance (72.1%) and a mean age of 82.4 ± 8.0 years. Of the patients, 12.7% had been prescribed with opioids and 4.2% with benzodiazepines in the previous month. The adjusted multivariate analysis found that using opioids (OR:4.49; 95%CI:2.72-7.42) and benzodiazepines (OR:3.73; 95%CI:1.60-8.70) in the month prior to the event was significantly associated with a greater probability of suffering a fall with hip fracture.

CONCLUSIONS

People who are taking opioids and benzodiazepines have increased risk for hip fracture in Colombia. Strategies to educate physicians regarding the pharmacology of older adults should be strengthened.

Association between use of benzodiazepines and risk of fractures: a meta-analysis

Benzodiazepines (BZDs) are some of the most commonly prescribed drugs in the world. It has been shown that BZD use could be associated with increased fracture risk. However, studies on the use of BZDs and fracture risk have yielded inconsistent results. Results from the present meta-analysis show that BZD use is associated with a moderate and clinically significant increase in the risk of fractures.

INTRODUCTION

The relationship between the use of BZDs and fracture risk has been neither well identified nor summarized. This meta-analysis reports on the use of BZDs, especially short-acting BZDs, and their correlation with a moderate and clinically significant increase in fracture risk. This analysis will provide evidence for clinicians to consider fracture risk when prescribing BZDs among the elderly population. This study was conducted to determine whether people who take BZDs are at an increased fracture risk.

METHODS

A systematic search of studies published through January 2013 was conducted using MEDLINE, EMBASE, OVID, and ScienceDirect. Case-control and cohort studies that assessed the relationship between BZD use and the risk of fractures were identified. Literature searches, study selections, methodological assessments, and data mining were independently conducted by two reviewers. Disagreements were resolved by consensus. STATA 12.0 software was used for the meta-analysis. Random effects models were used for pooled analysis due to heterogeneity among the studies.

RESULTS

There were 25 studies, including 19 case-control studies and 6 cohort studies, that met the inclusion criteria. Overall, the results of the meta-analysis indicated that BZD use was associated with a significantly increased fracture risk (relative risk (RR) = 1.25; 95% confidence intervals (CI), 1.17-1.34; p < 0.001). Increased fracture risk associated with BZD use was observed in participants aged ≥65 years old (RR = 1.26; 95% CI, 1.15-1.38; p < 0.001). When only hip fractures were included as the outcome measure, the RR increased to 1.35. However, subgroup meta-analyses showed that there was no significant association between BZD use and fracture risk in Eastern countries (RR = 1.27; 95% CI, 0.76-2.14; p = 0.362) as well as between long-acting BZD use and risk of fractures (RR = 1.21; 95% CI, 0.95-1.54; p = 0.12). After accounting for publication bias, we observed that the overall association between BZD use and fracture risk to be slightly weaker (RR = 1.21; 95% CI, 1.13-1.30) but still significant.

CONCLUSION

The results of this meta-analysis demonstrate that the use of BZD, especially short-acting BZD, is associated with a moderate and clinically significant increase in fracture risk. However, large prospective studies that minimize selection bias are necessary to determine a more accurate fracture risk associated with BZD use.

Medication use and functional status decline in older adults: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

Functional status is the cornerstone of geriatric care and serves as an indicator of general well-being. A decline in function can increase health care use, worsen quality of life, threaten independence, and increase the risk of mortality. One of several risk factors for decline in functional status is medication use.

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to critically review published articles that have examined the relationship between medication use and functional status decline in the elderly.

METHODS

The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched for English-language articles published from January 1986 to June 2011. Search terms included aged, humans, drug utilization, polypharmacy, inappropriate prescribing, anticholinergics, psychotropics, antihypertensives, drug burden index, functional status, function change or decline, activities of daily living, gait, mobility limitation, and disability. A manual search of the reference lists of the identified articles and the authors' article files, book chapters, and recent reviews was conducted to retrieve additional publications. Only articles that used rigorous observational or interventional designs were included. Cross-sectional studies and case series were excluded from this review.

RESULTS

Nineteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Five studies addressed the impact of suboptimal prescribing on function, 3 of which found an increased risk of worse function in community-dwelling subjects receiving polypharmacy. Three of the 4 studies that assessed benzodiazepine use and functional status decline found a statistically significant association. One cohort study identified no relationship between antidepressant use and functional status, whereas a randomized trial found that amitriptyline, but not desipramine or paroxetine, impaired certain measures of gait. Two studies found that increasing anticholinergic burden was associated with worse functional status. In a study of hospitalized rehabilitation patients, users of hypnotics/anxiolytics (eg, phenobarbital, zolpidem) had lower relative Functional Independence Measure motor gains than nonusers. Use of multiple central nervous system (CNS) drugs (using different definitions) was linked to greater declines in self-reported mobility and Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) scores in 2 community-based studies. Another study of nursing home patients did not report a significant decrease in SPPB scores in those taking multiple CNS drugs. Finally, 2 studies found mixed effects between antihypertensive use and functional status in the elderly.

CONCLUSIONS

Benzodiazepines and anticholinergics have been consistently associated with impairments in functional status in the elderly. The relationships between suboptimal prescribing, antidepressants, and antihypertensives and functional status decline were mixed. Further research using established measures and methods is needed to better describe the impact of medication use on functional status in older adults.

Effect of Concomitant Use of Benzodiazepines and Other Drugs on the Risk of Injury in a Veterans Population

BACKGROUND

Benzodiazepines comprise a class of drugs that when used as monotherapy are generally acknowledged to pose a risk for injury by increasing the likelihood of falls, fall-related injuries, adverse drug events and car accidents. Benzodiazepines may also be used concomitantly with other high risk medications that may further exacerbate the risk of injury. The aim of this study is to examine the occurrence of the concomitant use of benzodiazepines and other drugs and then quantify the indirect effect of these drug combinations on the likelihood of an injury-related health care episode.

METHODS

A multivariate model was specified that included outpatient prescription data and inpatient/outpatient medical utilisation records for 13,745 patients at a Veterans Administration hospital system over a 3-year period (1999-2001). We analysed 1,33,872 outpatient benzodiazepine prescriptions and >1.5 million non-benzodiazepine prescriptions for the study population. Micromedex software was used to identify combinations of benzodiazepines and other drugs that are likely to result in 'major' interactions. We then further restricted our focus to the use of these drug combinations within a 30-day period prior to an injury-related medical event. The adjusted odds ratio on a variable characterising concomitant use of a benzodiazepine and another drug within this period was used to quantify the relative risk of injury. The principal outcome was the estimated risk of an injury-related health care episode within a 30-day period when taking both a benzodiazepine and another drug with a 'major' severity rating as defined by Micromedex. The risk of injury was adjusted for comorbidities, hospital discharges, marital status, age, mean arterial pressure and body mass index, as well as the dose of benzodiazepine (converted to diazepam equivalents) and duration of benzodiazepine treatment.

RESULTS

Of the 1,110 unique individuals who experienced an injury, 790 (71.2%) patients had used a benzodiazepine in combination with another drug. Furthermore, only 4.3% (320/7522) of the patients taking benzodiazepines who did not have concomitant drug use experienced an injury. The occurrence of this concomitant use increased the odds of an injury >2-fold in the model. Dose and duration of benzodiazepine use, as well as certain comorbidities, were also associated with an increased risk for injury, whereas being married reduced the risk.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first large-scale study to quantify the impact of concomitant use of benzodiazepines and other drugs on the risk of injury in a population of Veterans Administration patients. It demonstrates the utility of expanding the focus of inappropriate medication usage to include analyses that link potentially inappropriate drug use with health care utilisation for injuries.

Postural Instability and Consequent Falls and Hip Fractures Associated with Use of Hypnotics in the Elderly

The aim of this review is to establish the relationship between treatment with hypnotics and the risk of postural instability and as a consequence, falls and hip fractures, in the elderly. A review of the literature was performed through a search of the MEDLINE, Ingenta and PASCAL databases from 1975 to 2005. We considered as hypnotics only those drugs approved for treating insomnia, i.e. some benzodiazepines and the more recently launched 'Z'-compounds, i.e. zopiclone, zolpidem and zaleplon. Large-scale surveys consistently report increases in the frequency of falls and hip fractures when hypnotics are used in the elderly (2-fold risk). Benzodiazepines are the major class of hypnotics involved in this context; falls and fractures in patients taking Z-compounds are less frequently reported, and in this respect, zolpidem is considered as at risk in only one study. It is important to note, however, that drug adverse effect relationships are difficult to establish with this type of epidemiological data-mining. On the other hand, data obtained in laboratory settings, where confounding factors can be eliminated, prove that benzodiazepines are the most deleterious hypnotics at least in terms of their effects on body sway. Z-compounds are considered safer, probably because of their pharmacokinetic properties as well as their selective pharmacological activities at benzodiazepine-1 (BZ(1)) receptors. The effects of hypnotics on balance, gait and equilibrium are the consequence of differential negative impacts on vigilance and cognitive functions, and are highly dose- and time-dependent. Z-compounds have short half-lives and have less cognitive and residual effects than older medications. Some practical rules need to be followed when prescribing hypnotics in order to prevent falls and hip fractures as much as possible in elderly insomniacs, whether institutionalised or not. These are: (i) establish a clear diagnosis of the sleep disorder; (ii) take into account chronic conditions leading to balance and gait difficulties (motor and cognitive status); (iii) search for concomitant prescription of psychotropics and sedatives; (iv) use half the recommended adult dosage; and (v) declare any adverse effect to pharmacovigilance centres. Comparative pharmacovigilance studies focused on the impact of hypnotics on postural stability are very much needed.

Benzodiazepines and risk of hip fractures in older people: a review of the evidence

A hip fracture epidemic is occurring in developed countries in association with population aging. The increasing number of people with a hip fracture has major implications for clinicians and health service managers. More importantly, a hip fracture is a devastating event in the life of an older person, as it often leads to loss of independence and death. Identification of risk factors for hip fracture is an essential first step towards prevention. The use of psychotropic medications is an established risk factor for hip fracture. The purpose of this article is to systematically review epidemiological studies of the relationship between use of benzodiazepines and risk of hip fracture and, then, to see how the findings of these studies fit with what is known about the pharmacology of benzodiazepines. Eleven primary epidemiological studies were identified. The results of these studies were not consistent; however, the inconsistency appeared to be almost entirely explained by research design. The studies that did not show an association between increased hip fracture risk and benzodiazepine use were nearly all hospital-based case-control studies, a type of study that often lacks validity because of the difficulty of finding an appropriate control group. After excluding the hospital-based case-control studies, all but one of the remaining seven studies found that use of benzodiazepines was associated with an increased risk of hip fracture that varied between 50% and 110%. The only higher quality study that did not find an association between benzodiazepine use and hip fracture was also the only study conducted entirely in nursing homes. There was no evidence that the risk of hip fracture differed between short- and long-acting benzodiazepines. People using higher doses of benzodiazepines and those who had recently started using benzodiazepines were at the highest risk of hip fracture. In very old people, there was some preliminary evidence that benzodiazepines that undergo oxidation in the liver may be associated with a higher risk of hip fracture than other benzodiazepines. The epidemiological evidence strongly suggests that the use of benzodiazepines by older people increases their risk of hip fracture by at least 50%. The benefits of benzodiazepines for older people are unclear. Given the high morbidity and mortality of hip fracture, it can be concluded that older people should rarely be prescribed benzodiazepines and that many older people already taking these drugs should have them withdrawn under appropriate supervision.

Oxidative and nonoxidative benzodiazepines and the risk of femur fracture. The Systematic Assessment of Geriatric Drug Use Via Epidemiology Study Group

Benzodiazepine use is a well-identified risk factor for falls and the resulting femur fractures in elderly adults. Benzodiazepines not requiring hepatic biotransformation may be safer than agents undergoing oxidation because oxidative activity has been shown to decline with age. The association between the use of either oxidative or nonoxidative benzodiazepines and the risk of femur fracture among elderly adults living in nursing homes was studied. A nested case-control study was conducted using the Systematic Assessment of Geriatric drug use via Epidemiology (SAGE) database; the records of 9,752 patients hospitalized for incident femur fracture during the period 1992 to 1996 were extracted, matching by age, gender, state, and index date to the records of 38,564 control patients. Conditional logistic regression models were conducted to estimate the odds ratios (ORs) for femur fracture with adjustment for potential confounders. The adjusted OR for the overall use of benzodiazepines was 1.10 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.98-1.20); the risk seemed of only slightly greater magnitude for exposure to nonoxidative agents (1.18; 95% CI, 1.03-1.36) than to oxidative benzodiazepines (1.08; 95% CI, 0.95-1.23). Among the latter, the effect was mainly accounted for by the use of agents with a long elimination half-life. A dose relationship was observed exclusively among users of long half-life oxidative benzodiazepines. The risk associated with the use of nonoxidative benzodiazepines showed no relationship to the age of the patients. In contrast, patients aged 85 years or older receiving oxidative benzodiazepines at high dosages or as needed had a two- to three-fold increased risk of femur fracture than did patients in the younger age group. Among older individuals, the use of benzodiazepines slightly increased the risk of femur fracture, mainly irrespective of the metabolic fate of the drug. Our results suggest that the use of nonoxidative benzodiazepines does not carry a lower risk for femur fracture than does the use of oxidative benzodiazepines. However, the latter agents may be associated with a somewhat higher risk of side effects among the oldest old, especially at higher dosages.