Markers of transition to adulthood, socioeconomic status of origin, and trajectories of health

Disadvantaged family background and depression among young adults in the United States: the roles of chronic stress and self-esteem

Although several longitudinal studies have demonstrated that having a disadvantaged family background is a risk factor for subsequent symptoms of depression, few studies have examined the mediating mechanisms that explain this long-term relationship. Thus, this study uses US national longitudinal data and integrates social stress theory with the life course perspective by focusing on two mediating mechanisms-the chronic stress of poverty and self-esteem during the transition to adulthood. Results reveal that self-esteem largely mediates the inverse relationship between parental education and levels of depressive symptoms in young adulthood. However, the inverse relationship between parental occupational prestige and depressive symptoms among young adults is not mediated by self-esteem, but rather long durations of poverty across 16 years. Overall, these findings suggest that different components of family socioeconomic status can leave a lasting imprint on mental health via the self-concept and the chronic stress of poverty throughout the journey to adulthood.

Transitions to adulthood and psychological distress in young adults born 12 years apart: constraints on and resources for development

BACKGROUND

Later transitions to adult roles and responsibilities have been linked with better psychological well-being yet psychological distress has risen despite young people making the transition to adulthood at older ages over recent years.

METHOD

We examine the role of structural constraints and adolescent resources in the relationship between the timing of transitions and psychological distress in early adult life in the 1958 National Child Development Study and the 1970 British Cohort Study. Graphical chain models were used to examine the influences on timing of four key transitions and their relationship with psychological distress (Malaise Inventory). The role of structural factors at birth (gender, social class) and adolescent resources (psychosocial problems, exam grades) were modelled.

RESULTS

An earlier transition to adult roles was associated with an increased risk for psychological distress but so was failing to make some key transitions. Structural constraints had negative effects on successful development. Persistent social class and gender inequalities in psychological distress were evident in both cohorts. Social class constraints were mediated by educational resources whereas gender constraints were mediated by psychosocial resources. The influence of structural constraints on the timing of transitions to adult roles was more complex with evidence of positive and negative mediation and moderation effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Delaying transition to adulthood promotes psychological health but failure of transition to independent living is associated with psychological distress. Life-course transitions are constrained by social origin and gender and possibly economic environment. Adolescent resources help young adults to make timely transitions to adult roles.

Dissecting the Influence of Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status on Mental Health in Young Adulthood

Studies have provided contradictory findings about the influence of race and ethnicity on mental health. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979 to 1992), this study examines the extent to which multiple dimensions of past and present socioeconomic status explain the influence of race and ethnicity on depression in young adulthood. Results indicate that Blacks and Hispanics have significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms than Whites, which supports social stress theory. These racial and ethnic differences are partially explained by family background and wealth, and substantially explained by the duration of poverty across 13 years of the transition to adulthood. Moreover, the robust depressive effect of past poverty duration is independent of present socioeconomic status and family background. Overall, this study was inspired by the life-course perspective and highlights the importance of wealth and histories of poverty for understanding racial and ethnic mental health disparities among young adults in the United States.

Depressive disorders among young Canadians: associated factors of continuity and discontinuity

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to compare potential risk factors of depressive disorders among young Canadians (aged 15-24) to those of older age groups (25-34 and 35-44) and examine the contribution of individual and contextual factors in the continuity and discontinuity of depression.

METHODS

Data from the Canadian Community Health Survey--Cycle 1.2 were analyzed to examine the associations between individual, familial, social and environmental factors and the continuity or discontinuity of depressive disorders among young Canadians. The sample consisted of 5,673 Canadians aged 15-24, 5,830 aged 25-34 and 7,830 aged 35-44. Youths were also categorized according to the type of cases: non-case, new case, case in remission or long-lasting case.

RESULTS

Among Canadian youth, 10.2% had suffered from depression during their lifetime. Social support was the only factor distinguishing the youngest age group from the others regarding depression. Compared to older age groups, stress levels were notably higher for young people. The combination of social network, social support and stress levels strongly distinguished between the long-term cases and the non-cases among youths. Weak feeling of community cohesion was also related to new cases of depression and could contribute to their beginnings.

CONCLUSIONS

Potential targets for preventive measures lie in the contextual and social influences of youth; particularly what impacts stress levels, social support and social networks. Studying processes of continuity and discontinuity contribute to identifying distinct profiles of onset, recurrence or remission of depression that may point to avenues for prevention and early intervention.

Does timing and sequencing of transitions to adulthood make a difference? Stress, smoking, and physical activity among young Australian women

The major changes of the transition to adulthood are argued to be stressful, and health-related behaviors such as smoking and physical activity may be adopted, consolidated, or abandoned at this time. On the other hand, research has suggested that the normative transitions of emerging adulthood, although involving considerable change, may be associated with low stress because they are perceived as both positive and normal at this life stage. This article examines relations between the timing and sequencing of life transitions and stress and health-related behaviors, focusing on the transition to young adulthood among Australian women. A total of 853 women aged 22 to 27 provided information about the timing and sequencing of 6 life transitions: moving out of home, stopping full-time education, starting full-time work, having the first live-in relationship, marriage, and motherhood-and stress, smoking, and physical activity. Most had moved out of home, stopped full-time education, and started full-time work, but only 14% had undertaken all 6 transitions. Overall, 70% of participants had made transitions "in order." Overall, the findings suggest that the relations between timing and sequencing of transitions, and indicators of health, are moderate for smoking, but small for stress and for physical activity. These effects remained after controlling for socioeconomic status of the participants' families of origin. Matching current social norms for the timing and sequencing of life changes may be of less importance for women's well-being than is commonly believed. Although the significant relations between early or "out of order" transitions and smoking are of concern, the smaller relations with stress and with sedentariness suggest that such transitions may have limited negative consequences, and support the view that individuals are active in choosing the life path that is appropriate for them and their circumstances.