1
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim R Viviani
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics (DFQM), Center for Sustainable Sciences and Technologies (CCTS), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil.
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2
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Liu YJ. Understanding the complete bioluminescence cycle from a multiscale computational perspective: A review. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY C: PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2022.100537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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3
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Systematic Comparison of Beetle Luciferase-Luciferin Pairs as Sources of Near-Infrared Light for In Vitro and In Vivo Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052451. [PMID: 35269601 PMCID: PMC8910387 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Luciferases catalyze light-emitting reactions that produce a rainbow of colors from their substrates (luciferins), molecular oxygen, and often additional cofactors. These bioluminescence (BL) systems have afforded an incredible variety of basic research and medical applications. Driven by the importance of BL-based non-invasive animal imaging (BLI) applications, especially in support of cancer research, new BL systems have been developed by engineering beetle luciferase (Luc) variants and synthetic substrate combinations to produce red to near-infrared (nIR) light to improve imaging sensitivity and resolution. To stimulate the application of BLI research and advance the development of improved reagents for BLI, we undertook a systematic comparison of the spectroscopic and BL properties of seven beetle Lucs with LH2 and nine substrates, which included two new quinoline ring-containing analogs. The results of these experiments with purified Luc enzymes in vitro and in live HEK293T cells transfected with luc genes have enabled us to identify Luc/analog combinations with improved properties compared to those previously reported and to provide live cell BL data that may be relevant to in vivo imaging applications. Additionally, we found strong candidate enzyme/substrate pairs for in vitro biomarker applications requiring nIR sources with minimal visible light components. Notably, one of our new substrates paired with a previously developed Luc variant was demonstrated to be an excellent in vitro source of nIR and a potentially useful BL system for improved resolution in BLI.
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Brennan CK, Ornelas MY, Yao ZW, Prescher JA. Multicomponent Bioluminescence Imaging with Naphthylamino Luciferins. Chembiochem 2021; 22:2650-2654. [PMID: 34139065 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Bioluminescent tools have been used for decades to image processes in complex tissues and preclinical models. However, few distinct probes are available to probe multicellular interactions. We and others are addressing this limitation by engineering new luciferases that can selectively process synthetic luciferin analogues. In this work, we explored naphthylamino luciferins as orthogonal bioluminescent probes. Three analogues were prepared using an optimized synthetic route. The luciferins were found to be robust emitters with native luciferase in vitro and in cellulo. We further screened the analogues against libraries of luciferase mutants to identify unique enzyme-substrate pairs. The new probes can be used in conjunction with existing bioluminescent tools for multi-component imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline K Brennan
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, 1120 Natural Science II, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Marya Y Ornelas
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, 1120 Natural Science II, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Zi W Yao
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, 1120 Natural Science II, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Jennifer A Prescher
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, 1120 Natural Science II, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, 101 Theory, Suite 100, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
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Viviani VR, Bevilaqua VR, de Souza DR, Pelentir GF, Kakiuchi M, Hirano T. A Very Bright Far-Red Bioluminescence Emitting Combination Based on Engineered Railroad Worm Luciferase and 6'-Amino-Analogs for Bioimaging Purposes. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 22:E303. [PMID: 33396708 PMCID: PMC7794784 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Beetle luciferases produce bioluminescence (BL) colors ranging from green to red, having been extensively used for many bioanalytical purposes, including bioimaging of pathogen infections and metastasis proliferation in living animal models and cell culture. For bioimaging purposes in mammalian tissues, red bioluminescence is preferred, due to the lower self-absorption of light at longer wavelengths by hemoglobin, myoglobin and melanin. Red bioluminescence is naturally produced only by Phrixothrix hirtus railroad worm luciferase (PxRE), and by some engineered beetle luciferases. However, Far-Red (FR) and Near-Infrared (NIR) bioluminescence is best suited for bioimaging in mammalian tissues due to its higher penetrability. Although some FR and NIR emitting luciferin analogs have been already developed, they usually emit much lower bioluminescence activity when compared to the original luciferin-luciferases. Using site-directed mutagenesis of PxRE luciferase in combination with 6'-modified amino-luciferin analogs, we finally selected novel FR combinations displaying BL ranging from 636-655 nm. Among them, the combination of PxRE-R215K mutant with 6'-(1-pyrrolidinyl)luciferin proved to be the best combination, displaying the highest BL activity with a catalytic efficiency ~2.5 times higher than the combination with native firefly luciferin, producing the second most FR-shifted bioluminescence (650 nm), being several orders of magnitude brighter than commercial AkaLumine with firefly luciferase. Such combination also showed higher thermostability, slower BL decay time and better penetrability across bacterial cell membranes, resulting in ~3 times higher in vivo BL activity in bacterial cells than with firefly luciferin. Overall, this is the brightest FR emitting combination ever reported, and is very promising for bioimaging purposes in mammalian tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim R. Viviani
- Graduate Program of Evolutive Genetics and Molecular Biology, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), 18052-780 São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil;
- Graduate Program of Biotechnology and Environmental Monitoring, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), 18119-001 Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil;
| | - Vanessa R. Bevilaqua
- Graduate Program of Evolutive Genetics and Molecular Biology, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), 18052-780 São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil;
| | - Daniel R. de Souza
- Graduate Program of Biotechnology and Environmental Monitoring, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), 18119-001 Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil;
| | - Gabriel F. Pelentir
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), 18052-780 São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil;
| | - Michio Kakiuchi
- Department of Engineering Science, Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan; (M.K.); (T.H.)
| | - Takashi Hirano
- Department of Engineering Science, Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan; (M.K.); (T.H.)
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6
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Williams SJ, Prescher JA. Building Biological Flashlights: Orthogonal Luciferases and Luciferins for in Vivo Imaging. Acc Chem Res 2019; 52:3039-3050. [PMID: 31593431 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.9b00391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Bioluminescence is widely used for real-time imaging in living organisms. This technology features a light-emitting reaction between enzymes (luciferases) and small molecule substrates (luciferins). Photons produced from luciferase-luciferin reactions can penetrate through heterogeneous tissue, enabling readouts of physiological processes. Dozens of bioluminescent probes are now available and many are routinely used to monitor cell proliferation, migration, and gene expression patterns in vivo. Despite the ubiquity of bioluminescence, traditional applications have been largely limited to imaging one biological feature at a time. Only a handful of luciferase-luciferin pairs can be easily used in tandem, and most are poorly resolved in living animals. Efforts to develop spectrally distinct reporters have been successful, but multispectral imaging in large organisms remains a formidable challenge due to interference from surrounding tissue. Consequently, a lack of well-resolved probes has precluded multicomponent tracking. An expanded collection of bioluminescent probes would provide insight into processes where multiple cell types drive physiological tasks, including immune function and organ development. We aimed to expand the bioluminescent toolkit by developing substrate-resolved imaging agents. The goal was to generate multiple orthogonal (i.e., noncross-reactive) luciferases that are responsive to unique scaffolds and could be used concurrently in living animals. We adopted a parallel engineering approach to genetically modify luciferases to accept chemically modified luciferins. When the mutants and analogs are combined, light is produced only when complementary enzyme-substrate partners interact. Thus, the pairs can be distinguished based on substrate selectivity, regardless of the color of light emitted. Sequential administration of the luciferins enables the unique luciferases to be illuminated (and thus resolved) within complex environments, including whole organisms. This Account describes our efforts to develop orthogonal bioluminescent probes, crafting custom luciferases (or "biological flashlights") that can selectively process luciferin analogs (or "batteries") to produce light. In the first section, we describe synthetic methods that were key to accessing diverse luciferin architectures. The second section focuses on identifying complementary luciferase enzymes via a combination of mutagenesis and screening. To expedite the search for orthogonal enzymes and substrates, we developed a computational algorithm to sift through large data sets. The third section features examples of the parallel engineering approach. We identified orthogonal enzyme-substrate pairs comprising two different classes of luciferins. The probes were vetted both in cells and whole organisms. This expanded collection of imaging agents is applicable to studies of immune function and other multicomponent processes. The final section of the Account highlights ongoing work toward building better bioluminescent tools. As ever-brighter and more selective probes are developed, the frontiers of what we can "see" in vivo will continue to expand.
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7
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Bevilaqua VR, Matsuhashi T, Oliveira G, Oliveira PSL, Hirano T, Viviani VR. Phrixotrix luciferase and 6'-aminoluciferins reveal a larger luciferin phenolate binding site and provide novel far-red combinations for bioimaging purposes. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8998. [PMID: 31227722 PMCID: PMC6588592 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44534-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
How the unique luciferase of Phrixothrix hirtus (PxRE) railroad worm catalyzes the emission of red bioluminescence using the same luciferin of fireflies, remains a mystery. Although PxRE luciferase is a very attractive tool for bioanalysis and bioimaging in hemoglobin rich tissues, it displays lower quantum yield (15%) when compared to green emitting luciferases (>40%). To identify which parts of PxRE luciferin binding site (LBS) determine bioluminescence color, and to develop brighter and more red-shifted emitting luciferases, we compared the effects of site-directed mutagenesis and of larger 6′-substituted aminoluciferin analogues (6′-morpholino- and 6′-pyrrolidinyl-LH) on the bioluminescence properties of PxRE and green-yellow emitting beetle luciferases. The effects of mutations in the benzothiazolyl and thiazolyl parts of PxRE LBS on the KM and catalytic efficiencies, indicated their importance for luciferin binding and catalysis. However, the absence of effects on the bioluminescence spectrum indicated a less interactive LBS in PxRE during light emission. Mutations at the bottom of LBS of PxRE blue-shifted the spectra and increased catalytic efficiency, suggesting that lack of interactions of this part of LBS with excited oxyluciferin phenolate underlie red light emission. The much higher bioluminescence activity and red-shifted spectra of PxRE luciferase with 6′-morpholino- (634 nm) and 6′-pyrrolidinyl-luciferins (644 nm), when compared to other beetle luciferases, revealed a larger luciferin phenolate binding pocket. The size and orientation of the side-chains of L/I/H348 are critical for amino-analogues accommodation and modulate bioluminescence color, affecting the interactions and mobility of excited oxyluciferin phenolate. The PxRE luciferase and 6′-aminoluciferins provide potential far-red combinations for bioimaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- V R Bevilaqua
- Graduate Program of Evolutive Genetics and Molecular Biology, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - T Matsuhashi
- Department of Engineering Science, Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo, 182-8585, Japan
| | - G Oliveira
- Graduate Program of Evolutive Genetics and Molecular Biology, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - P S L Oliveira
- Brazilian Biosciences National Laboratory (LNBio), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Zip Code 13083-970, Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - T Hirano
- Department of Engineering Science, Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo, 182-8585, Japan
| | - V R Viviani
- Graduate Program of Biotechnology and Environmental Monitoring, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), Rodovia João Leme dos Santos, km 110, Itinga, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil. .,Graduate Program of Evolutive Genetics and Molecular Biology, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
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8
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Miller SC, Mofford DM, Adams ST. Lessons Learned from Luminous Luciferins and Latent Luciferases. ACS Chem Biol 2018; 13:1734-1740. [PMID: 29439568 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.7b00964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Compared to the broad palette of fluorescent molecules, there are relatively few structures that are competent to support bioluminescence. Here, we focus on recent advances in the development of luminogenic substrates for firefly luciferase. The scope of this light-emitting chemistry has been found to extend well beyond the natural substrate and to include enzymes incapable of luciferase activity with d-luciferin. The broadening range of luciferin analogues and evolving insight into the bioluminescent reaction offer new opportunities for the construction of powerful optical reporters of use in live cells and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C. Miller
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
| | - David M. Mofford
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
| | - Spencer T. Adams
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, United States
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9
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Cheng YY, Liu YJ. Theoretical Development of Near-Infrared Bioluminescent Systems. Chemistry 2018; 24:9340-9352. [PMID: 29710377 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201800416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The luciferin/luciferase system of the firefly has been used in bioluminescent imaging to monitor biological processes. In order to enhance the efficiency and expand the application range, some efforts have been made to tune the light emission, especially the effort to obtain NIR light. However, those case-by-case studies have not together revealed the nature and mechanism of the color tuning. In this paper, we theoretically investigated the fluorescence of all kinds of typical oxyluciferin analogues. The present systematical modifications of both oxyluciferin and luciferase indicate that the essential factor affecting the emission color is the charge distribution (or the electric dipole moment) on the oxyluciferin, which impacts on the charge transfer to form the light emitter and, subsequently, influence the strength and wavelength of the emission light. More negative charge distributed on the "thiazolone moiety" of the oxyluciferin or its analogues leads to a redshift. Based on this conclusion, we theoretically designed optimal pairs of luciferin analogue and luciferase for emitting NIR light, which could inspire new synthetic procedures and practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Yuan Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Photochemistry, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, P. R. China
| | - Ya-Jun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Photochemistry, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, P. R. China
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10
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Kitada N, Saitoh T, Ikeda Y, Iwano S, Obata R, Niwa H, Hirano T, Miyawaki A, Suzuki K, Nishiyama S, Maki SA. Toward bioluminescence in the near-infrared region: Tuning the emission wavelength of firefly luciferin analogues by allyl substitution. Tetrahedron Lett 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2018.01.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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Kaskova ZM, Tsarkova AS, Yampolsky IV. 1001 lights: luciferins, luciferases, their mechanisms of action and applications in chemical analysis, biology and medicine. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 45:6048-6077. [PMID: 27711774 DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00296j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bioluminescence (BL) is a spectacular phenomenon involving light emission by live organisms. It is caused by the oxidation of a small organic molecule, luciferin, with molecular oxygen, which is catalysed by the enzyme luciferase. In nature, there are approximately 30 different BL systems, of which only 9 have been studied to various degrees in terms of their reaction mechanisms. A vast range of in vitro and in vivo analytical techniques have been developed based on BL, including tests for different analytes, immunoassays, gene expression assays, drug screening, bioimaging of live organisms, cancer studies, the investigation of infectious diseases and environmental monitoring. This review aims to cover the major existing applications for bioluminescence in the context of the diversity of luciferases and their substrates, luciferins. Particularly, the properties and applications of d-luciferin, coelenterazine, bacterial, Cypridina and dinoflagellate luciferins and their analogues along with their corresponding luciferases are described. Finally, four other rarely studied bioluminescent systems (those of limpet Latia, earthworms Diplocardia and Fridericia and higher fungi), which are promising for future use, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zinaida M Kaskova
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia. and Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianova 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Aleksandra S Tsarkova
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia. and Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianova 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
| | - Ilia V Yampolsky
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Miklukho-Maklaya 16/10, Moscow 117997, Russia. and Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ostrovitianova 1, Moscow 117997, Russia
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12
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Maphupha M, Juma WP, de Koning CB, Brady D. A modern and practical laccase-catalysed route suitable for the synthesis of 2-arylbenzimidazoles and 2-arylbenzothiazoles. RSC Adv 2018; 8:39496-39510. [PMID: 35558053 PMCID: PMC9090715 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra07377e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Heterocyclic aromatic compounds containing an imine (C
Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019
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N) bond such as benzimidazoles and benzothiazoles are important active pharmaceutical ingredients. The synthesis of 2-aryl-1H-benzimidazoles and 2-arylbenzothiazoles in good to excellent yields was achieved by reacting 2-aminoaromatics with various benzaldehyde derivatives catalysed by the commercial laccases Novoprime and Suberase® at room temperature and in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Green chemistry: laccase in acetonitrile and buffer in the presence of O2 can synthesise benzimidazoles and benzothiazoles in good yields.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Mudzuli Maphupha
- Molecular Sciences Institute
- School of Chemistry
- University of the Witwatersrand
- Johannesburg
- South Africa
| | - Wanyama P. Juma
- Molecular Sciences Institute
- School of Chemistry
- University of the Witwatersrand
- Johannesburg
- South Africa
| | - Charles B. de Koning
- Molecular Sciences Institute
- School of Chemistry
- University of the Witwatersrand
- Johannesburg
- South Africa
| | - Dean Brady
- Molecular Sciences Institute
- School of Chemistry
- University of the Witwatersrand
- Johannesburg
- South Africa
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Rathbun C, Porterfield WB, Jones KA, Sagoe MJ, Reyes MR, Hua CT, Prescher JA. Parallel Screening for Rapid Identification of Orthogonal Bioluminescent Tools. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2017; 3:1254-1261. [PMID: 29296665 PMCID: PMC5746862 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.7b00394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Bioluminescence imaging with luciferase enzymes and luciferin small molecules is a well-established technique for tracking cells and other biological features in rodent models. Despite its popularity, bioluminescence has long been hindered by a lack of distinguishable probes. Here we present a method to rapidly identify new substrate-selective luciferases for multicomponent imaging. Our strategy relies on parallel screening of luciferin analogues with panels of mutant enzymes. The compiled data set is then analyzed in silico to uncover mutually orthogonal sets. Using this approach, we screened 159 mutant enzymes with 12 luciferins. Thousands of orthogonal pairs were revealed with sufficient selectivity for use in biological environments. Over 100 pairs were validated in vitro, and three were applied in cell and animal models. The parallel screening method is both generalizable and scalable and will streamline the search for larger collections of orthogonal probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin
M. Rathbun
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry,
and Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California,
Irvine Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - William B. Porterfield
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry,
and Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California,
Irvine Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Krysten A. Jones
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry,
and Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California,
Irvine Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Marian J. Sagoe
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry,
and Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California,
Irvine Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Monique R. Reyes
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry,
and Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California,
Irvine Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Christine T. Hua
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry,
and Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California,
Irvine Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Jennifer A. Prescher
- Department
of Chemistry, Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry,
and Department of
Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California,
Irvine Irvine, California 92697, United States
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14
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Jones KA, Porterfield WB, Rathbun CM, McCutcheon DC, Paley MA, Prescher JA. Orthogonal Luciferase-Luciferin Pairs for Bioluminescence Imaging. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:2351-2358. [PMID: 28106389 PMCID: PMC5452985 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b11737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Bioluminescence imaging with luciferase-luciferin pairs is widely used in biomedical research. Several luciferases have been identified in nature, and many have been adapted for tracking cells in whole animals. Unfortunately, the optimal luciferases for imaging in vivo utilize the same substrate and therefore cannot easily differentiate multiple cell types in a single subject. To develop a broader set of distinguishable probes, we crafted custom luciferins that can be selectively processed by engineered luciferases. Libraries of mutant enzymes were iteratively screened with sterically modified luciferins, and orthogonal enzyme-substrate "hits" were identified. These tools produced light when complementary enzyme-substrate partners interacted both in vitro and in cultured cell models. Based on their selectivity, these designer pairs will bolster multicomponent imaging and enable the direct interrogation of cell networks not currently possible with existing tools. Our screening platform is also general and will expedite the identification of more unique luciferases and luciferins, further expanding the bioluminescence toolkit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krysten A. Jones
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | | | - Colin M. Rathbun
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | | | - Miranda A. Paley
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jennifer A. Prescher
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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15
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Steinhardt RC, O'Neill JM, Rathbun CM, McCutcheon DC, Paley MA, Prescher JA. Design and Synthesis of an Alkynyl Luciferin Analogue for Bioluminescence Imaging. Chemistry 2016; 22:3671-5. [PMID: 26784889 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201503944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Herein, the synthesis and characterization of an alkyne-modified luciferin is reported. This bioluminescent probe was accessed using C-H activation methodology and was found to be stable in solution and capable of light production with firefly luciferase. The luciferin analogue was also cell permeant and emitted more redshifted light than d-luciferin, the native luciferase substrate. Based on these features, the alkynyl luciferin will be useful for a variety of imaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jessica M O'Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Colin M Rathbun
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - David C McCutcheon
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Miranda A Paley
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer A Prescher
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA. .,Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA. .,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.
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16
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Zhou JG, Williams QL, Walters W, Deng ZY. How Does the Local Electrostatic Field Influence Emitted Wavelengths and Bioluminescent Intensities of Modified Heteroaromatic Luciferins? J Phys Chem B 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b03827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Ge Zhou
- Department
of Physics, Atmospheric Sciences, and Geoscience, Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi 39217, United States
| | - Quinton L. Williams
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, Howard University, Washington D.C. 20059, United States
| | - Wilbur Walters
- Department
of Physics, Atmospheric Sciences, and Geoscience, Jackson State University, Jackson, Mississippi 39217, United States
| | - Zhen-Yan Deng
- Department
of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
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17
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Adams ST, Miller SC. Beyond D-luciferin: expanding the scope of bioluminescence imaging in vivo. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2014; 21:112-20. [PMID: 25078002 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The light-emitting chemical reaction catalyzed by the enzyme firefly luciferase is widely used for noninvasive imaging in live mice. However, photon emission from the luciferase is crucially dependent on the chemical properties of its substrate, D-luciferin. In this review, we describe recent work to replace the natural luciferase substrate with synthetic analogs that extend the scope of bioluminescence imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer T Adams
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA
| | - Stephen C Miller
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA 01605, USA.
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18
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Latent luciferase activity in the fruit fly revealed by a synthetic luciferin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:4443-8. [PMID: 24616520 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1319300111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Beetle luciferases are thought to have evolved from fatty acyl-CoA synthetases present in all insects. Both classes of enzymes activate fatty acids with ATP to form acyl-adenylate intermediates, but only luciferases can activate and oxidize d-luciferin to emit light. Here we show that the Drosophila fatty acyl-CoA synthetase CG6178, which cannot use d-luciferin as a substrate, is able to catalyze light emission from the synthetic luciferin analog CycLuc2. Bioluminescence can be detected from the purified protein, live Drosophila Schneider 2 cells, and from mammalian cells transfected with CG6178. Thus, the nonluminescent fruit fly possesses an inherent capacity for bioluminescence that is only revealed upon treatment with a xenobiotic molecule. This result expands the scope of bioluminescence and demonstrates that the introduction of a new substrate can unmask latent enzymatic activity that differs significantly from an enzyme's normal function without requiring mutation.
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19
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Choi S, Han S, Lee H, Chun YJ, Kim D. Evaluation of Luminescent P450 Analysis for Directed Evolution of Human CYP4A11. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2014; 21:487-92. [PMID: 24404341 PMCID: PMC3879922 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2013.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 4A11 (CYP4A11) is a fatty acid hydroxylase enzyme expressed in human liver. It catalyzes not only the hydroxylation of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, but the conversion of arachidonic acid to 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (20-HETE), a regulator of blood pressure. In this study, we performed a directed evolution analysis of CYP4A11 using the luminogenic assay system. A random mutant library of CYP4A11, in which mutations were made throughout the entire coding region, was screened with luciferase activity to detect the demethylation of luciferin-4A (2-[6-methoxyquinolin-2-yl]-4,5-dihydrothiazole-4-carboxylic acid) of CYP4A11 mutants in Escherichia coli. Consecutive rounds of random mutagenesis and screening yielded three improved CYP4A11 mutants, CP2600 (A24T/T263A), CP2601 (T263A), and CP2616 (A24T/T263A/V430E) with ~3-fold increase in whole cells and >10-fold increase in purified proteins on the luminescence assay. However, the steady state kinetic analysis for lauric acid hydroxylation showed the significant reductions in enzymatic activities in all three mutants. A mutant, CP2600, showed a 51% decrease in catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) for lauric acid hydroxylation mainly due to an increase in Km. CP2601 and CP2616 showed much greater reductions (>75%) in the catalytic efficiency due to both a decrease in kcat and an increase in Km. These decreased catalytic activities of CP2601 and CP2616 can be partially attributed to the changes in substrate affinities. These results suggest that the enzymatic activities of CYP4A11 mutants selected from directed evolution using a luminogenic P450 substrate may not demonstrate a direct correlation with the hydroxylation activities of lauric acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seunghye Choi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Songhee Han
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Hwayoun Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
| | - Young-Jin Chun
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Donghak Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701
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20
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Iwano S, Obata R, Miura C, Kiyama M, Hama K, Nakamura M, Amano Y, Kojima S, Hirano T, Maki S, Niwa H. Development of simple firefly luciferin analogs emitting blue, green, red, and near-infrared biological window light. Tetrahedron 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2013.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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21
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Van de Bittner GC, Bertozzi CR, Chang CJ. Strategy for dual-analyte luciferin imaging: in vivo bioluminescence detection of hydrogen peroxide and caspase activity in a murine model of acute inflammation. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:1783-95. [PMID: 23347279 PMCID: PMC3583381 DOI: 10.1021/ja309078t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In vivo molecular imaging holds promise for understanding the underlying mechanisms of health, injury, aging, and disease, as it can detect distinct biochemical processes such as enzymatic activity, reactive small-molecule fluxes, or post-translational modifications. Current imaging techniques often detect only a single biochemical process, but, within whole organisms, multiple types of biochemical events contribute to physiological and pathological phenotypes. In this report, we present a general strategy for dual-analyte detection in living animals that employs in situ formation of firefly luciferin from two complementary caged precursors that can be unmasked by different biochemical processes. To establish this approach, we have developed Peroxy Caged Luciferin-2 (PCL-2), a H(2)O(2)-responsive boronic acid probe that releases 6-hydroxy-2-cyanobenzothiazole (HCBT) upon reacting with this reactive oxygen species, as well as a peptide-based probe, z-Ile-Glu-ThrAsp-D-Cys (IETDC), which releases D-cysteine in the presence of active caspase 8. Once released, HCBT and D-cysteine form firefly luciferin in situ, giving rise to a bioluminescent signal if and only if both chemical triggers proceed. This system thus constitutes an AND-type molecular logic gate that reports on the simultaneous presence of H(2)O(2) and caspase 8 activity. Using these probes, chemoselective imaging of either H(2)O(2) or caspase 8 activity was performed in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, concomitant use of PCL-2 and IETDC in vivo establishes a concurrent increase in both H(2)O(2) and caspase 8 activity during acute inflammation in living mice. Taken together, this method offers a potentially powerful new chemical tool for studying simultaneous oxidative stress and inflammation processes in living animals during injury, aging, and disease, as well as a versatile approach for concurrent monitoring of multiple analytes using luciferin-based bioluminescence imaging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carolyn R. Bertozzi
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Christopher J. Chang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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22
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Woodroofe CC, Meisenheimer PL, Klaubert DH, Kovic Y, Rosenberg JC, Behney CE, Southworth TL, Branchini BR. Novel Heterocyclic Analogues of Firefly Luciferin. Biochemistry 2012; 51:9807-13. [PMID: 23164087 DOI: 10.1021/bi301411d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dieter H. Klaubert
- Promega Biosciences, LLC, San Luis Obispo, California 93433, United States
| | - Yumi Kovic
- Department of Chemistry, Connecticut College, New London, Connecticut 06320,
United States
| | - Justin C. Rosenberg
- Department of Chemistry, Connecticut College, New London, Connecticut 06320,
United States
| | - Curran E. Behney
- Department of Chemistry, Connecticut College, New London, Connecticut 06320,
United States
| | - Tara L. Southworth
- Department of Chemistry, Connecticut College, New London, Connecticut 06320,
United States
| | - Bruce R. Branchini
- Department of Chemistry, Connecticut College, New London, Connecticut 06320,
United States
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23
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Li ZS, Min CG, Ren AM, Zou LY, Xu Z. TDDFT investigation of fluorescence properties of luciferin and oxyluciferin analogs bearing an amino group. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2012.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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24
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Sun Y, Liu J, Wang P, Zhang J, Guo W. D
‐Luciferinanaloga: eine vielfarbige Palette für die Biolumineszenzbildgebung. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201203565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan‐Qiang Sun
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Jing Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Pi Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Jingyu Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Wei Guo
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
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25
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Sun Y, Liu J, Wang P, Zhang J, Guo W. D
‐Luciferin Analogues: a Multicolor Toolbox for Bioluminescence Imaging. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:8428-30. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201203565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan‐Qiang Sun
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Jing Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Pi Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Jingyu Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
| | - Wei Guo
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006 (China)
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26
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Cali JJ, Ma D, Wood MG, Meisenheimer PL, Klaubert DH. Bioluminescent assays for ADME evaluation: dialing in CYP selectivity with luminogenic substrates. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2012; 8:1115-30. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2012.695345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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27
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Takakura H, Kojima R, Ozawa T, Nagano T, Urano Y. Development of 5'- and 7'-substituted luciferin analogues as acid-tolerant substrates of firefly luciferase. Chembiochem 2012; 13:1424-7. [PMID: 22678981 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Takakura
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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28
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McCutcheon DC, Paley MA, Steinhardt RC, Prescher JA. Expedient synthesis of electronically modified luciferins for bioluminescence imaging. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:7604-7. [PMID: 22519459 PMCID: PMC3613990 DOI: 10.1021/ja301493d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Bioluminescence imaging with luciferase enzymes requires access to light-emitting, small-molecule luciferins. Here, we describe a rapid method to synthesize d-luciferin, the substrate for firefly luciferase (Fluc), along with a novel set of electronically modified analogues. Our procedure utilizes a relatively rare, but synthetically useful dithiazolium reagent to generate heteroaromatic scaffolds in a divergent fashion. Two of the luciferin analogues produced with this approach emit light with Fluc in vitro and in live cells. Collectively, our work increases the number of substrates that can be used for bioluminescence imaging and provides a general strategy for synthesizing new collections of luciferins.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C. McCutcheon
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
| | - Miranda A. Paley
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
| | | | - Jennifer A. Prescher
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697
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29
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Conley NR, Dragulescu-Andrasi A, Rao J, Moerner WE. A selenium analogue of firefly D-luciferin with red-shifted bioluminescence emission. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:3350-3. [PMID: 22344705 PMCID: PMC3494413 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201105653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2011] [Revised: 01/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
A selenium analogue of amino-D-luciferin, aminoseleno-D-luciferin, is synthesized and shown to be a competent substrate for the firefly luciferase enzyme. It has a red-shifted bioluminescence emission maximum at 600 nm and is suitable for bioluminescence imaging studies in living subjects.
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30
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Conley NR, Dragulescu-Andrasi A, Rao J, Moerner WE. A Selenium Analogue of Firefly D-Luciferin with Red-Shifted Bioluminescence Emission. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201105653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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31
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Meisenheimer PL, Uyeda HT, Ma D, Sobol M, McDougall MG, Corona C, Simpson D, Klaubert DH, Cali JJ. Proluciferin acetals as bioluminogenic substrates for cytochrome P450 activity and probes for CYP3A inhibition. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39:2403-10. [PMID: 21890735 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.041541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (P450) assays use probe substrates to interrogate the influence of new chemical entities toward P450 enzymes. We report the synthesis and study of a family of bioluminogenic luciferin acetal substrates that are oxidized by P450 enzymes to form luciferase substrates. The luciferin acetals were screened against a panel of purified P450 enzymes. In particular, one proluciferin acetal has demonstrated sensitive and selective CYP3A4-catalyzed oxidation to a luciferin ester-K(m) and k(cat) are 2.88 μM and 5.87 pmol metabolite · min(-1) · pmol enzyme(-1), respectively. The proluciferin acetal was used as a probe substrate to measure IC(50) values of known inhibitors against recombinant CYP3A4 or human liver microsomes. IC(50) values for the known inhibitors correlate strongly with IC(50) values calculated from the traditional high-performance liquid chromatography-based probe substrate testosterone. Luciferin acetals are rapidly oxidized to unstable hemi-orthoesters by CYP3A resulting in luciferin esters and, therefore, are conducive to simple rapid CYP3A bioluminescent assays.
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32
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Chang YC, Chao PW, Tung CH. Sensitive luciferin derived probes for selective carboxypeptidase activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:3931-4. [PMID: 21640584 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2011] [Revised: 05/06/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Highly selective luminescent probes, QLUC-TYR and LUC-GLU, for detection of carboxypeptidase activity were synthesized. Caged substrates were first cleaved by corresponding carboxypeptidases, and then they were activated by luciferase to emit light. Enzymatic activities of biologically important carboxypeptidases can be determined using this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Cheng Chang
- Department of Radiology, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, 6565 Fannin Street, #B5-009, Houston, TX 77030, United States
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33
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da Silva LP, da Silva JCGE. Kinetics of inhibition of firefly luciferase by dehydroluciferyl-coenzyme A, dehydroluciferin and L-luciferin. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2011; 10:1039-45. [PMID: 21409209 DOI: 10.1039/c0pp00379d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The inhibition mechanisms of the firefly luciferase (Luc) by three of the most important inhibitors of the reactions catalysed by Luc, dehydroluciferyl-coenzyme A (L-CoA), dehydroluciferin (L) and L-luciferin (L-LH(2)) were investigated. Light production in the presence and absence of these inhibitors (0.5 to 2 μM) has been measured in 50 mM Hepes buffer (pH = 7.5), 10 nM Luc, 250 μM ATP and D-luciferin (D-LH(2), from 3.75 up to 120 μM). Nonlinear regression analysis with the appropriate kinetic models (Henri-Michaelis-Menten and William-Morrison equations) reveals that L-CoA is a non-competitive inhibitor of Luc (K(i) = 0.88 ± 0.03 μM), L is a tight-binding uncompetitive inhibitor (K(i) = 0.00490 ± 0.00009 μM) and L-LH(2) acts as a mixed-type non-competitive-uncompetitive inhibitor (K(i) = 0.68 ± 0.14 μM and αK(i) = 0.34 ± 0.16 μM). The K(m) values obtained for L-CoA, L and L-LH(2) were 16.1 ± 1.0, 16.6 ± 2.3 and 14.4 ± 0.96 μM, respectively. L and L-LH(2) are strong inhibitors of Luc, which may indicate an important role for these compounds in Luc characteristic flash profile. L-CoA K(i) supports the conclusion that CoA can stimulate the light emission reaction by provoking the formation of a weaker inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís Pinto da Silva
- Centro de Investigação em Química (UP), Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.
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34
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Oba Y, Mori N, Yoshida M, Inouye S. Identification and characterization of a luciferase isotype in the Japanese firefly, Luciola cruciata, involving in the dim glow of firefly eggs. Biochemistry 2010; 49:10788-95. [PMID: 21090686 DOI: 10.1021/bi1016342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We isolated the cDNA of a luciferase isotype (LcLuc2) from the Japanese firefly, Luciola cruciata (Lampyridae, Coleoptera). The gene product of LcLuc2 (LcLuc2) showed 59% amino acid identity with firefly luciferase LcLuc1, which was previously identified in L. cruciata. The recombinant LcLuc2 showed both luminescence activity and fatty acyl-CoA synthetic activity comparable to those of LcLuc1. The spectral maxima of the luminescence by LcLuc1 and LcLuc2 were 554 and 543 nm, respectively. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis showed that the transcripts of LcLuc1 were abundant in the lanterns of larva, adult male, and adult female, whereas both LcLuc1 and LcLuc2 were expressed in eggs. The luminescence spectra of the lantern extracts from larva, adult male, and adult female were in good agreement with that of recombinant LcLuc1. On the other hand, the emission maximum of the extract from eggs was between those of LcLuc1 and LcLuc2. These results suggest that L. cruciata possesses two luciferases: LcLuc1 is responsible for the major luminescence in larva and adult, whereas LcLuc1 and LcLuc2 are responsible for the dim glow in firefly eggs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichi Oba
- Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan.
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35
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Leitão JM, Esteves da Silva JC. Firefly luciferase inhibition. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2010; 101:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2010.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Revised: 06/09/2010] [Accepted: 06/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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36
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Yasgar A, Shultz J, Zhou W, Wang H, Huang F, Murphy N, Abel EL, DiGiovanni J, Inglese J, Simeonov A. A high-throughput 1,536-well luminescence assay for glutathione S-transferase activity. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2010; 8:200-11. [PMID: 20085484 DOI: 10.1089/adt.2009.0248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) constitute a family of detoxification enzymes that catalyze the conjugation of glutathione with a variety of hydrophobic compounds, including drugs and their metabolites, to yield water-soluble derivatives that are excreted in urine or bile. Profiling the effect of small molecules on GST activity is an important component in the characterization of drug candidates and compound libraries. Additionally, specific GST isozymes have been implicated in drug resistance, especially in cancer, and thus represent potential targets for intervention. To date, there are no sensitive miniaturized high-throughput assays available for GST activity detection. A series of GST substrates containing a masked luciferin moiety have been described recently, offering the potential for configuring a sensitive screening assay via coupled luciferase reaction and standard luminescence detection. We report on the optimization and miniaturization of this homogeneous method to 1,536-well format using GSTs from 3 different species: mouse isozyme A4-4, human isozymes A1-1, M1-1, and P1-1, and the major GST from the parasitic worm Schistosoma japonicum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Yasgar
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-3370, USA
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37
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Inouye S. Firefly luciferase: an adenylate-forming enzyme for multicatalytic functions. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:387-404. [PMID: 19859663 PMCID: PMC11115821 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-009-0170-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Revised: 09/24/2009] [Accepted: 10/02/2009] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Firefly luciferase is a member of the acyl-adenylate/thioester-forming superfamily of enzymes and catalyzes the oxidation of firefly luciferin with molecular oxygen to emit light. Knowledge of the luminescence mechanism catalyzed by firefly luciferase has been gathered, leading to the discovery of a novel catalytic function of luciferase. Recently, we demonstrated that firefly luciferase has a catalytic function of fatty acyl-CoA synthesis from fatty acids in the presence of ATP, Mg(2+) and coenzyme A. Based on identification of fatty acyl-CoA genes in firefly, Drosophila, and non-luminous click beetles, we then proposed that the evolutionary origin of firefly luciferase is a fatty acyl-CoA synthetase in insects. Further, we succeeded in converting the fatty acyl-CoA synthetase of non-luminous insects into functional luciferase showing luminescence activity by site-directed mutagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Inouye
- Yokohama Research Center, Chisso Corporation, 5-1 Okawa, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-8605, Japan.
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38
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Woodroofe CC, Shultz JW, Wood MG, Osterman J, Cali JJ, Daily WJ, Meisenheimer PL, Klaubert DH. N-Alkylated 6'-aminoluciferins are bioluminescent substrates for Ultra-Glo and QuantiLum luciferase: new potential scaffolds for bioluminescent assays. Biochemistry 2008; 47:10383-93. [PMID: 18771284 DOI: 10.1021/bi800505u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A set of 6'-alkylated aminoluciferins are shown to be bioluminescent substrates for Ultra-Glo and QuantiLum luciferases. These studies demonstrate that both the engineered and wild-type firefly luciferases tolerate much greater steric bulk at the 6' position of luciferin than has been previously reported. The nature of the alkyl substituent strongly affects the strength of the bioluminescent signal, which varies widely based on size, shape, and charge. Several compounds were observed to generate more light than the corresponding unsubstituted 6'-aminoluciferin. Determination of Michaelis-Menten constants for the substrates with Ultra-Glo indicated that the variation arises primarily from differences in V max, ranging from 1.33 x 10 (4) to 332 x 10 (4) relative light units, but in some cases K m (0.73-10.8 microM) also plays a role. Molecular modeling results suggest that interactions of the side chain with a hydrogen-bonding network at the base of the luciferin binding pocket may influence substrate-enzyme binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn C Woodroofe
- Promega Biosciences, Inc., 277 Granada Drive, San Luis Obispo, California 93401, USA.
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39
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Ribeiro C, Esteves da Silva JCG. Kinetics of inhibition of firefly luciferase by oxyluciferin and dehydroluciferyl-adenylate. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2008; 7:1085-90. [PMID: 18754056 DOI: 10.1039/b809935a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The inhibition mechanisms of the firefly luciferase (Luc) by the two major products of the reactions catalysed by Luc, oxyluciferin and dehydroluciferyl-adenylate (L-AMP), were investigated. Light production in the presence and absence of these inhibitors (0.5 to 2 microM oxyluciferin; 0.0025 to 1.25 microM L-AMP) has been measured in 50 mM Hepes buffer (pH=7.5), 10 nM Luc, 250 microM ATP and D-Luciferin (from 3.75 up to 120 microM). Nonlinear regression analysis with the appropriate kinetic models (Henri-Michaelis-Menten and William-Morrison equations) reveals that oxyluciferin is a competitive inhibitor of luciferase (Ki=0.50+/-0.03 microM) while L-AMP act as a tight-binding competitive inhibitor (Ki=3.8+/-0.7 nM). The Km values obtained both for oxyluciferin and L-AMP were 14.7+/-0.7 and 14.9+/-0.2 microM, respectively. L-AMP is a stronger inhibitor of Luc than oxyluciferin and the major responsible for the characteristic flash profile of in vitro Luc bioluminescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Ribeiro
- Centro de Investigação em Química (UP), Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, R. Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
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Zhou W, Andrews C, Liu J, Shultz JW, Valley MP, Cali JJ, Hawkins EM, Klaubert DH, Bulleit RF, Wood KV. Self-Cleavable Bioluminogenic Luciferin Phosphates as Alkaline Phosphatase Reporters. Chembiochem 2008; 9:714-8. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200700644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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41
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Fraga H. Firefly luminescence: a historical perspective and recent developments. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2008; 7:146-58. [PMID: 18264582 DOI: 10.1039/b719181b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Significant advances have occurred regarding our knowledge of firefly luciferase mechanisms. Although most of this progress was an outcome of molecular biology and structural studies, important achievements have also occurred on its fundamental chemistry. Those developments are here summarized and presented in a historical perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Fraga
- Centro de Investigação em Química (UP), Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, R. Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.
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42
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Branchini BR, Ablamsky DM, Murtiashaw MH, Uzasci L, Fraga H, Southworth TL. Thermostable red and green light-producing firefly luciferase mutants for bioluminescent reporter applications. Anal Biochem 2007; 361:253-62. [PMID: 17181991 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2006.10.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2006] [Accepted: 10/30/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Light emission from the North American firefly Photinus pyralis, which emits yellow-green (557-nm) light, is widely believed to be the most efficient bioluminescence system known, making this luciferase an excellent tool for monitoring gene expression. We present studies on the production of a set of thermostable red- and green-emitting luciferase mutants with bioluminescent properties suitable for dual-color reporter assays, biosensor measurements with internal controls, and imaging techniques. Starting with the luciferase variant Ser284Thr, we introduced the mutations Thr214Ala, Ala215Leu, Ile232Ala, Phe295Leu, and Glu354Lys to produce a new red-emitting enzyme with a bioluminescence maximum of 610 nm, narrow emission bandwidth, favorable kinetic properties, and excellent thermostability at 37 degrees C. By adding the same five changes to luciferase mutant Val241Ile/Gly246Ala/Phe250Ser, we produced a protein with an emission maximum of 546 nm, providing a set of thermostable enzymes whose bioluminescence maxima were separated by 64 nm. Model studies established that the luciferases could be detected at the attomole level and six orders of magnitude higher. In microplate luminometer format, mixtures containing 1.0 fmol total luciferase were quantified from measurements of simultaneously emitted red and green light. The results presented here provide evidence that it is feasible to monitor two distinct activities at 37 degrees C with these novel thermostable proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce R Branchini
- Department of Chemistry, Connecticut College, New London, CT 06320, USA.
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43
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Fraga H, Fernandes D, Novotny J, Fontes R, Esteves da Silva JCG. Firefly luciferase produces hydrogen peroxide as a coproduct in dehydroluciferyl adenylate formation. Chembiochem 2006; 7:929-35. [PMID: 16642538 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200500443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Firefly luciferase catalyzes the synthesis of H2O2 from the same substrates as the bioluminescence reaction: ATP and luciferin (D-LH2). About 80% of the enzyme-bound intermediate D-luciferyl adenylate (D-LH2-AMP) is oxidized into oxyluciferin, and a photon is emitted during this reaction. The enzyme pathway responsible for the generation of H2O2 is a side reaction in which D-LH2-AMP is oxidized into dehydroluciferyl adenylate (L-AMP). Like the bioluminescence reaction, the luciferase-catalyzed synthesis of H2O2 and L-AMP is a stereospecific process, involving only the natural D enantiomer. However, the intramolecular electron transfer postulated as essential to the light emission process is not involved in this side reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Fraga
- Centro de Investigação em Química, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, R. Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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44
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Zhou W, Shultz JW, Murphy N, Hawkins EM, Bernad L, Good T, Moothart L, Frackman S, Klaubert DH, Bulleit RF, Wood KV. Electrophilic aromatic substituted luciferins as bioluminescent probes for glutathione S-transferase assays. Chem Commun (Camb) 2006:4620-2. [PMID: 17082862 DOI: 10.1039/b610682j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
New highly sensitive latent bioluminescent luciferin substrates were designed and synthesized for monitoring mammalian glutathione S-transferase (GST) and Schistosoma japonicum enzyme activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Zhou
- Promega Biosciences Inc, San Luis Obispo, CA 93401, USA.
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46
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Nakamura M, Maki S, Amano Y, Ohkita Y, Niwa K, Hirano T, Ohmiya Y, Niwa H. Firefly luciferase exhibits bimodal action depending on the luciferin chirality. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 331:471-5. [PMID: 15850783 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.03.202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Firefly luciferase is able to convert L-luciferin into luciferyl-CoA even under ordinary aerobic luciferin-luciferase reaction conditions. The luciferase is able to recognize strictly the chirality of the luciferin structure, serving as the acyl-CoA synthetase for L-luciferin, whereas d-luciferin is used for the bioluminescence reaction. D-Luciferin inhibits the luciferyl-CoA synthetase activity of L-luciferin, whereas L-luciferin retards the bioluminescence reaction of D-luciferin, meaning that both enzyme activities are prevented by the enantiomer of its own substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuhiro Nakamura
- Department of Applied Physics and Chemistry, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan
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Tannous BA, Kim DE, Fernandez JL, Weissleder R, Breakefield XO. Codon-Optimized Gaussia Luciferase cDNA for Mammalian Gene Expression in Culture and in Vivo. Mol Ther 2005; 11:435-43. [PMID: 15727940 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2004.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 519] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2004] [Accepted: 10/27/2004] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Photoproteins have played a major role in advancing our understanding of biological processes. A broader array of biocompatible, nontoxic, and novel reporters can serve to expand this potential. Here we describe the properties of a luciferase from the copepod marine organism Gaussia princeps. It is a monomeric protein composed of 185 aa (19.9 kDa) with a short coding sequence (555 bp) making it suitable for viral vectors. The humanized form of Gaussia luciferase (hGLuc) was efficiently expressed in mammalian cells following delivery by HSV-1 amplicon vectors. It was found to be nontoxic and naturally secreted, with flash bioluminescence characteristics similar to those of other coelenterazine luciferases. hGLuc generated over 1000-fold higher bioluminescent signal intensity from live cells together with their immediate environment and over 100-fold higher intensity from viable cells alone (not including secreted luciferase) or cell lysates, compared to humanized forms of firefly (hFLuc) and Renilla (hRLuc) luciferases expressed under similar conditions. Furthermore, hGLuc showed 200-fold higher signal intensity than hRLuc and intensity comparable to that of hFLuc in vivo under standard imaging conditions. Gaussia luciferase provides a sensitive means of imaging gene delivery and other events in living cells in culture and in vivo, with a unique combination of features including high signal intensity, secretion, and ATP independence, thus being able to report from the cells and their environment in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bakhos A Tannous
- Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Branchini
- Department of Chemistry, Connecticut College, New London 06320, USA
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Branchini BR, Magyar RA, Marcantonio KM, Newberry KJ, Stroh JG, Hinz LK, Murtiashaw MH. Identification of a firefly luciferase active site peptide using a benzophenone-based photooxidation reagent. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:19359-64. [PMID: 9235934 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.31.19359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Firefly luciferase catalyzes the highly efficient emission of yellow-green light from substrate luciferin by a series of reactions that require MgATP and molecular oxygen. We prepared 2-(4-benzoylphenyl)thiazole-4-carboxylic acid (BPTC), a novel benzophenone-based substrate analog, intending to use it in photoaffinity labeling studies to probe the luciferase active site. Instead, we found that while BPTC was a potent photoinactivating reagent for firefly luciferase, it was not a photoaffinity labeling agent. Using proteolysis, reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography, tandem high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, and Edman sequencing, we identified a single luciferase peptide, 244HHGF247, the degradation of which was directly correlated to luciferase photoinactivation. Results of enzyme kinetics and related studies were consistent with this peptide being at or near the luciferin binding site. Further, peptide model studies and additional investigations on the nature of the photoinactivation process strongly suggested that BPTC catalyzed the formation of singlet oxygen at the active site of the enzyme. We describe here an uncommon example of active site-directed photooxidation of an enzyme by singlet oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Branchini
- Central Research Division, Pfizer Inc., Groton, Connecticut 06340, USA.
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50
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Thompson JF, Geoghegan KF, Lloyd DB, Lanzetti AJ, Magyar RA, Anderson SM, Branchini BR. Mutation of a protease-sensitive region in firefly luciferase alters light emission properties. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:18766-71. [PMID: 9228050 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.30.18766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Luciferase (EC 1.13.12.7) from the North American firefly, Photinus pyralis, is widely used as a reporter enzyme in cell biology. One of its distinctive properties is a pronounced susceptibility to proteolytic degradation that causes luciferase to have a very short intracellular half-life. To define the structural basis for this behavior and possibly facilitate the design of more stable forms of luciferase, limited proteolysis studies were undertaken using trypsin and chymotrypsin to identify regions of the protein whose accessible and flexible character rendered them especially sensitive to cleavage. Regions of amino acid sequence 206-220 and 329-341 were found to be sensitive, and because the region around 206-220 had high homology with other luciferases, CoA ligases, and peptidyl synthetases, this region was selected for mutagenesis experiments intended to determine which of its amino acids were essential for activity. Surprisingly, many highly conserved residues including Ser198, Ser201, Thr202, and Gly203 could be mutated with little effect on the luminescent activity of P. pyralis luciferase. One mutation, however, S198T, caused several alterations in enzymatic properties including shifting the pH optimum from 8.1 to 8.7, lowering the Km for Mg-ATP by a factor of 4 and increasing the half-time for light emission decay by a factor of up to 150. While the S198T luciferase was less active than wild type, activity could be restored by the introduction of the additional L194F and N197Y mutations. In addition to indicating the involvement of this region in ATP binding, these results provide a new form of the enzyme that affords a more versatile reporter system.
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Affiliation(s)
- J F Thompson
- Molecular Sciences Department, Central Research Division, Pfizer Inc., Groton, Connecticut 06340, USA.
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