AMP-activated protein kinase regulates cancer cell growth and metabolism via nuclear and mitochondria events

High-dose vitamin C promotes mitochondrial biogenesis in HCT116 colorectal cancer cells by regulating the AMPK/PGC-1α signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Mitochondrial dysfunction is closely associated with cancer development. Colorectal cancer (CRC) cells often exhibit altered energy metabolism, characterized by increased glycolysis and reduced oxidative phosphorylation. Enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis and function may represent a promising therapeutic approach. High-dose vitamin C has demonstrated anti-tumor properties and the ability to reverse the Warburg effect, but its role in regulating mitochondrial biogenesis and function remains unclear.

METHODS

We evaluated the altered mitochondrial functional status of HCT116 colorectal cancer cells compared to FHC colorectal epithelial cells, assessed the effects of high-dose vitamin C on mitochondrial biogenesis and function in HCT116 cells, and explored the underlying regulatory mechanisms.

RESULTS

HCT116 cells exhibited mitochondrial dysfunction compared to FHC cells, including decreased expression of electron transport chain complexes III and IV, reduced TFAM levels, and lower mtDNA content. Vitamin C treatment significantly enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis and function, as reflected by increased AMPK phosphorylation, upregulation of PGC-1α, SOD2, NRF2, TFAM, MT-CYB, and MTCO1, elevated mtDNA content, restored membrane potential, enhanced oxidative phosphorylation, and reduced glycolytic activity. Furthermore, vitamin C markedly suppressed HCT116 cell viability and clonogenic capacity, while these effects were substantially diminished by cotreatment with Compound C.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that high-dose vitamin C ameliorates mitochondrial dysfunction and promotes mitochondrial biogenesis and function in colorectal cancer cells through activation of the AMPK-PGC-1α signaling pathway, thereby suppressing tumor cell proliferation. These findings suggest that vitamin C may serve as a promising therapeutic agent for targeting mitochondrial metabolism in colorectal cancer.

Insights into targeting LKB1 in tumorigenesis

Genetic alterations to serine-threonine kinase 11 (STK11) have been implicated in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome and tumorigenesis. Further exploration of the context-specific roles of liver kinase B1 (LKB1; encoded by STK11) observed that it regulates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and AMPK-related kinases. Given that both migration and proliferation are enhanced with the loss of LKB1 activity combined with the prevalence of STK11 genetic alterations in cancer biopsies, LKB1 was marked as a tumor suppressor. However, the role of LKB1 in tumorigenesis is paradoxical as LKB1 activates autophagy and reactive oxygen species scavenging while dampening anoikis, which contribute to cancer cell survival. Due to the pro-tumorigenic properties of LKB1, targeting LKB1 pathways is now relevant for cancer treatment. With the recent successes of targeting LKB1 signaling in research and clinical settings, and enhanced cytotoxicity of chemical compounds in LKB1-deficient tumors, there is now a need for LKB1 inhibitors. However, validating LKB1 inhibitors is challenging as LKB1 adaptor proteins, nucleocytoplasmic shuttling, and splice variants all manipulate LKB1 activity. Furthermore, STE-20-related kinase adaptor protein (STRAD) and mouse protein 25 dictate LKB1 cellular localization and kinase activity. For these reasons, prior to assessing the efficacy and potency of pharmacological candidates, the functional status of LKB1 needs to be defined. Therefore, to improve the understanding of LKB1 in physiology and oncology, this review highlights the role of LKB1 in tumorigenesis and addresses the therapeutic relevancy of LKB1 inhibitors.

High intensity interval training as a therapy: Mitophagy restoration in breast cancer

Recent studies have highlighted the role of mitophagy in tumorigenesis. This study aimed to investigate the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on mitophagy in tumor tissues of mice with breast cancer. Twenty-eight female BALB/c mice were randomly assigned to four groups: Healthy Control (CO), Cancer (CA), Exercise (EX), and Cancer + Exercise (CA + EX). Mammary tumors were induced in the CA and CA + EX groups via 4T1 cell injections. Upon confirmation of tumor formation, the EX and CA + EX groups underwent 8 weeks (40 sessions) of HIIT, comprising 4-10 intervals of running at 80-100 % of maximum speed. The expression levels of mitophagy-related proteins, including parkin, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), NIP3-like protein X (NIX), BCL2 interacting protein-3 (BINP3), microtubule-associated protein light chain 3-I (LC3-I), microtubule-associated protein light chain 3-II (LC3-II), AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase-1 (ULK1), and sirtuin-1 (SIRT1), were measured in breast and tumor tissues. Tumor volume relative to body weight was assessed weekly during the eight-week HIIT intervention. Protein expression of parkin, PINK1, NIX, BINP3, LC3-II, LC3-I, AMPK, ULK1, and SIRT1 was reduced in the breast tissue of the CA group, while HIIT restored expression levels across all measured variables (P < 0.01). Additionally, tumor volume relative to body weight was significantly lower in the CA + EX group compared to the CA group from weeks 3-8 (P < 0.01). These findings suggest that breast cancer suppresses mitophagy, yet HIIT effectively reverses this suppression, potentially reducing tumor burden. HIIT may thus represent a promising therapeutic strategy for managing breast cancer.

MitoAMPK inhibits the Warburg effect by MZF1-SIRT6 with glycosis related genes in NSCLC

MitoAMPK was proved to inhibit the Warburg effect, but the specific mechanisms on non-small-cell lung cancer remain unclear. Here, we selected SIRT6 and MZF1 to clarify the mechanism. By western blotting, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, the CCK-8 assay, and immunohistochemistry assays, we found SIRT6 expression was lower in NSCLC tissues and cell lines than normal tissues and cells. Moreover, SIRT6 could inhibit the Warburg effect by regulating glycolysis-related genes of SLC2A2, SLC2A4 and PKM2. Finally, we demonstrated the interaction between SIRT6 and MZF1 using ChIP-qPCR. In conclusion, mitoAMPK inhibits the Warburg effect by regulating the expression of the MZF1-SIRT6 complex.

LKB1 biology: assessing the therapeutic relevancy of LKB1 inhibitors

Liver Kinase B1 (LKB1), encoded by Serine-Threonine Kinase 11 (STK11), is a master kinase that regulates cell migration, polarity, proliferation, and metabolism through downstream adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and AMPK-related kinase signalling. Since genetic screens identified STK11 mutations in Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome, STK11 mutants have been implicated in tumourigenesis labelling it as a tumour suppressor. In support of this, several compounds reduce tumour burden through upregulating LKB1 signalling, and LKB1-AMPK agonists are cytotoxic to tumour cells. However, in certain contexts, its role in cancer is paradoxical as LKB1 promotes tumour cell survival by mediating resistance against metabolic and oxidative stressors. LKB1 deficiency has also enhanced the selectivity and cytotoxicity of several cancer therapies. Taken together, there is a need to develop LKB1-specific pharmacological compounds, but prior to developing LKB1 inhibitors, further work is needed to understand LKB1 activity and regulation. However, investigating LKB1 activity is strenuous as cell/tissue type, mutations to the LKB1 signalling pathway, STE-20-related kinase adaptor protein (STRAD) binding, Mouse protein 25-STRAD binding, splicing variants, nucleocytoplasmic shuttling, post-translational modifications, and kinase conformation impact the functional status of LKB1. For these reasons, guidelines to standardize experimental strategies to study LKB1 activity, associate proteins, spliced isoforms, post-translational modifications, and regulation are of upmost importance to the development of LKB1-specific therapies. Therefore, to assess the therapeutic relevancy of LKB1 inhibitors, this review summarizes the importance of LKB1 in cell physiology, highlights contributors to LKB1 activation, and outlines the benefits and risks associated with targeting LKB1.

Qiangjing tablets ameliorate asthenozoospermia via mitochondrial ubiquitination and mitophagy mediated by LKB1/AMPK/ULK1 signaling

CONTEXT

Therapeutic effects of Qiangjing tablets (QJT) on sperm vitality and asthenozoospermia (AZS) have been confirmed. However, the mechanism of action remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates the effects of QJT on AZS and the underlying mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into six groups: Control, ORN (ornidazole; 200 mg/kg), ORN + QJT-low (0.17 g/mL), ORN + QJT-middle (0.33 g/mL), ORN + QJT-high (0.67 g/mL), and ORN + QJT + Radicicol (0.67 g/mL QJT and 20 mg/kg radicicol) groups. Pathological evaluation and analysis of mitophagy were conducted by H&E staining and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. Reactive oxygen species were detected by flow cytometry. Protein expression was determined by Western blotting.

RESULTS

QJT significantly improved ORN-treated sperm motility and kinematic parameters, as well as the pathological symptoms of testicular and epididymal tissues. In particular, QJT mitigated impaired mitochondrial morphology, and increased the PHB, Beclin-1, LC3-II protein, and ROS levels (p < 0.05), and reduced the protein expression levels of LC3-I and p62 (p < 0.05). Mechanistically, QJT antagonized the downregulation of SCF and Parkin protein levels (p < 0.05). Furthermore, QJT significantly increased the protein expressions levels of LKB1, AMPKα, p-AMPKα, ULK1 and p-ULK1 (p < 0.05). The ameliorative effect of QJT on pathological manifestations, mitochondrial morphology, and the expressions of mitophagy and mitochondrial ubiquitination-related proteins was counteracted by radicicol.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

QJT improved AZS via mitochondrial ubiquitination and mitophagy mediated by the LKB1/AMPK/ULK1 signaling pathway. Our study provides a theoretical basis for the treatment of AZS and male infertility.

Combined inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 and lactate dehydrogenase a induces metabolic and signaling reprogramming and enhances lung adenocarcinoma cell killing

Lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) is one of the most prevalent and aggressive types of lung cancer. Metabolic reprogramming plays a critical role in the development and progression of LUAD. Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1) and lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA) are two key enzymes involved in glucose metabolism, whilst their aberrant expressions are often associated with tumorigenesis. Herein, we investigated the anticancer effects of combined inhibition of PDK1 and LDHA in LUAD in vitro and in vivo and its underlying mechanisms of action. The combination of a PDK1 inhibitor, 64, and a LDHA inhibitor, NHI-Glc-2, led to a synergistic growth inhibition in 3 different LUAD cell lines and more than additively suppressed tumor growth in the LUAD xenograft H1975 model. This combination also inhibited cellular migration and colony formation, while it induced a metabolic shift from glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) resulting in mitochondrial depolarization and apoptosis in LUAD cells. These effects were related to modulation of multiple cell signaling pathways, including AMPK, RAS/ERK, and AKT/mTOR. Our findings demonstrate that simultaneous inhibition of multiple glycolytic enzymes (PDK1 and LDHA) is a promising novel therapeutic approach for LUAD.

Metabolic barriers in non-small cell lung cancer with LKB1 and/or KEAP1 mutations for immunotherapeutic strategies

Currently, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are widely considered the standard initial treatment for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) when there are no targetable driver oncogenic alternations. NSCLC tumors that have two alterations in tumor suppressor genes, such as liver kinase B1 (LKB1) and/or Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1), have been found to exhibit reduced responsiveness to these therapeutic strategies, as revealed by multiomics analyses identifying immunosuppressed phenotypes. Recent advancements in various biological approaches have gradually unveiled the molecular mechanisms underlying intrinsic reprogrammed metabolism in tumor cells, which contribute to the evasion of immune responses by the tumor. Notably, metabolic alterations in glycolysis and glutaminolysis have a significant impact on tumor aggressiveness and the remodeling of the tumor microenvironment. Since glucose and glutamine are essential for the proliferation and activation of effector T cells, heightened consumption of these nutrients by tumor cells results in immunosuppression and resistance to ICI therapies. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the clinical efficacies of current therapeutic strategies against NSCLC harboring LKB1 and/or KEAP1 mutations, along with the metabolic alterations in glycolysis and glutaminolysis observed in these cancer cells. Furthermore, ongoing trials targeting these metabolic alterations are discussed as potential approaches to overcome the extremely poor prognosis associated with this type of cancer.

Serine/Threonine Kinase 11 Plays a Canonical Role in Malignant Progression of KRAS -Mutant and GNAS -Wild-Type Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms of the Pancreas

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to elucidate the clinicopathobiological significance of Serine/Threonine Kinase 11 (STK11) in pancreatic intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs).

BACKGROUND

STK11 is a tumor suppressor involved in certain IPMNs; however, its significance is not well known.

METHODS

In 184 IPMNs without Peutz-Jeghers syndrome, we analyzed expression of STK11 and phosphorylated-AMPKa in all cases, and p16, p53, SMAD4, and β-catenin in 140 cases by immunohistochemistry; and we analyzed mutations in 37 genes, including whole coding exons of STK11, CDKN2A, TP53, and SMAD4, and hotspots of KRAS, BRAF, and GNAS in 64 cases by targeted sequencing. KRAS and GNAS were additionally analyzed in 86 STK11-normal IPMNs using digital-PCR.

RESULTS

Consistent loss or reduction of STK11 expression was observed in 26 of 184 (14%) IPMNs. These STK11-aberrant IPMNs were 17 of 45 (38%) pancreatobiliary, 8 of 27 (30%) oncocytic, 1 of 54 (2%) gastric, and 0 of 58 (0%) intestinal subtypes ( P = 8.5E-11), and 20 of 66 (30%) invasive, 6 of 74 (8%) high-grade, and 0 of 44 (0%) low-grade ( P = 3.9E-06). Sixteen somatic STK11 mutations (5 frameshift, 6 nonsense, 1 splicing, and 4 missense) were detected in 15/26 STK11-aberrant IPMNs ( P = 4.1E-06). All STK11-aberrantIPMNs were GNAS -wild-type and 96% of them were KRAS or BRAF -mutant.Morphologically, STK11-aberrant IPMNs presented "fern-like" arborizing papillae with thin fibrovascular core. Phosphorylated-AMPKa was down-regulated in STK11-aberrant IPMNs (92%, P = 6.8E-11). Patients with STK11-aberrant IPMNs showed poorer survival than patients with STK11-normal IPMNs ( P = 3.6E-04 overall; P = 6.1E-04 disease-free).

CONCLUSION

STK11 may play a canonical role in malignant progression and poor survival of patients with IPMNs. Aberrant STK11-driven phosphorylated AMPK downregulation may provide therapeutic opportunities with mTOR inhibitors/AMPK activators.

Fisetin ameliorates oxidative glutamate testicular toxicity in rats via central and peripheral mechanisms involving SIRT1 activation

Objectives

This study aimed to evaluate the potential mitigating effect of fisetin on monosodium glutamate (MSG)-induced testicular toxicity and investigate the possible involvement of silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog 1 (SIRT1) in this effect.

Methods

Forty male rats were divided into normal control, fisetin-treated, MSG-treated, and fisetin + MSG-treated groups. Testosterone, GnRH, FSH, and LH were measured in plasma, as well as SIRT1 and phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase (pAMPK) levels in testicular tissues using ELISA. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), nitric oxide (NO), and reduced glutathione (GSH) were measured colorimetrically, while Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 4 (NOX4) expression was relatively quantified using RT–PCR in testicular tissues.

Results

After 30 days, fisetin could ameliorate MSG-induced testicular toxicity by acting centrally on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, increasing plasma levels of GnRH, FSH, LH, and testosterone. Peripheral actions of fisetin on the testis were indicated as it increased testicular SIRT1 and pAMPK. Furthermore, it antagonized glutamate-induced oxidative stress by significantly lowering H₂O₂, NO, and relative NOX4 expression while significantly increasing reduced GSH levels. It also improved the architecture of the seminiferous tubules, reduced sperm abnormality, and increased sperm count.

Discussion

Fisetin ameliorates MSG-induced testicular toxicity via central and peripheral mechanisms making it a promising therapeutic target for male infertility.

PEBP4 Directs the Malignant Behavior of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells via Regulating mTORC1 and mTORC2

Phosphatidylethanolamine binding protein 4 (PEBP4) is an understudied multifunctional small protein. Previous studies have shown that the expression of PEBP4 is increased in many cancer specimens, which correlates to cancer progression. The present study explored the mechanism by which PEBP4 regulates the growth and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Thus, we showed that knockdown of PEBP4 in MHCC97H cells, where its expression was relatively high, diminished activities of serine/threonine protein kinase B (PKB, also known as Akt), mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1(mTORC1), and mTORC2, events that were not restored by insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). Conversely, overexpression of PEBP4 in MHCC97L cells with the low endogenous level yielded opposite effects. Furthermore, physical association of PEBP4 with Akt, mTORC1, and mTORC2 was observed. Interestingly, introduction of AktS473D mutant, bypassing phosphorylation by mTORC2, rescued mTORC1 activity, but without effects on mTORC2 signaling. In contrast, the effect of PEBP4 overexpression on the activity of mTORC1 but not that of mTORC2 was suppressed by MK2206, a specific inhibitor of Akt. In conjunction, PEBP4 knockdown-engendered reduction of cell proliferation, migration and invasion was partially rescued by Akt S473D while increases in these parameters induced by overexpression of PEBP4 were completely abolished by MK2206, although the expression of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers appeared to be fully regulated by the active mutant of Akt. Finally, knockdown of PEBP4 diminished the growth of tumor and metastasis, whereas they were enhanced by overexpression of PEBP4. Altogether, our study suggests that increased expression of PEBP4 exacerbates malignant behaviors of hepatocellular cancer cells through cooperative participation of mTORC1 and mTORC2.

AMP-activated protein kinase β1 or β2 deletion enhances colon cancer cell growth and tumorigenesis

Abnormal metabolism is a major hallmark of cancer and has been validated as a therapeutic target. Adenine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an αβγ heterotrimer, performs essential functions in cancer progression due to its central role in maintaining the homeostasis of cellular energy. While the contributions of AMPKα and AMPKγ subunits to cancer development have been established, specific roles of AMPKβ1 and AMPKβ2 isoforms in cancer development are poorly understood. Here, we show the functions of AMPKβ1 and AMPKβ2 in colon cancer. Specifically, deletion of AMPKβ1 or AMPKβ2 leads to increased cell proliferation, colony formation, migration, and tumorigenesis in HCT116 and HT29 colon cancer cells. Interestingly, the AMPKβ1 and AMPKβ2 isoforms have slightly different effects on regulating cancer metabolism, as colon cancer cells with AMPKβ1 knockout showed decreased rates of glycolysis-related oxygen consumption, while AMPKβ2 deletion led to enhanced rates of oxygen consumption due to oxidative phosphorylation. These results demonstrate that functional AMPKβ1 and AMPKβ2 inhibit growth and tumorigenesis in colon cancer cells, suggesting their potential as effective targets for colon cancer therapy.

PGC1 plays a pivotal role in renal fibrosis via regulation of fatty acid metabolism in renal tissue

Renal fibrosis is a common and irreversible pathological feature of end-stage renal disease caused by multiple etiologies. The role of inflammation in renal fibrosis tissue has been generally accepted. The latest view is that fatty acid metabolism disorder contributes to renal fibrosis. peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1α (PGC1α) plays a key role in fatty acid metabolism, regulating fatty acid uptake and oxidized protein synthesis, preventing the accumulation of lipid in the cytoplasm, and maintaining a dynamic balanced state of intracellular lipid. In multiple animal models of renal fibrosis caused by acute or chronic kidney disease, or even age-related kidney disease, almost all of the kidney specimens show the down-regulation of PGC1α. Upregulation of PGC1α can reduce the degree of renal fibrosis in animal models, and PGC1α knockout animals exhibit severe renal fibrosis. Studies have demonstrated that AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), MAPK, Notch, tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), non-coding RNA (ncRNAs), liver kinase B1 (LKB1), hairy and enhancer of split 1 (Hes1), and other pathways regulate the expression of PGC1α and affect fatty acid metabolism. But some of these pathways interact with each other, and the effect of the integrated pathway on renal fibrosis is not clear.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction and the Glycolytic Switch Induced by Caveolin-1 Phosphorylation Promote Cancer Cell Migration, Invasion, and Metastasis

Simple Summary

Caveolin-1 (CAV1) is a membrane protein that has been attributed a dual role in cancer, acting at early stages as a tumor suppressor and in later stages of the disease as a promoter of metastasis. In the latter case, enhanced expression of CAV1 favors the malignant phenotype and correlates with a poorer prognosis of the patients. Bearing in mind that the reprogramming of energy metabolism is required in cancer cells to meet both the bioenergetic and biosynthetic needs to sustain increased proliferation, migration, and invasion, we evaluated the metabolism of metastatic cells expressing or not CAV1. In this study, we show that the expression of CAV1 promotes in cancer cells a metabolic switch to an aerobic, glycolytic phenotype by blocking mitochondrial respiration.

Abstract

Cancer cells often display impaired mitochondrial function, reduced oxidative phosphorylation, and augmented aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect) to fulfill their bioenergetic and biosynthetic needs. Caveolin-1 (CAV1) is a scaffolding protein that promotes cancer cell migration, invasion, and metastasis in a manner dependent on CAV1 phosphorylation on tyrosine-14 (pY14). Here, we show that CAV1 expression increased glycolysis rates, while mitochondrial respiration was reduced by inhibition of the mitochondrial complex IV. These effects correlated with increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels that favored CAV1-induced migration and invasion. Interestingly, pY14-CAV1 promoted the metabolic switch associated with increased migration/invasion and augmented ROS-inhibited PTP1B, a phosphatase that controls pY14 levels. Finally, the glycolysis inhibitor 2-deoxy-D-glucose reduced CAV1-enhanced migration in vitro and metastasis in vivo of murine melanoma cells. In conclusion, CAV1 promotes the Warburg effect and ROS production, which inhibits PTP1B to augment CAV1 phosphorylation on tyrosine-14, thereby increasing the metastatic potential of cancer cells.

Mitochondria-actin cytoskeleton crosstalk in cell migration

Mitochondria perform diverse functions in the cell and their roles during processes such as cell survival, differentiation, and migration are increasingly being appreciated. Mitochondrial and actin cytoskeletal networks not only interact with each other, but this multifaceted interaction shapes their functional dynamics. The interrelation between mitochondria and the actin cytoskeleton extends far beyond the requirement of mitochondrial ATP generation to power actin dynamics, and impinges upon several major aspects of cellular physiology. Being situated at the hub of cell signaling pathways, mitochondrial function can alter the activity of actin regulatory proteins and therefore modulate the processes downstream of actin dynamics such as cellular migration. As we will discuss, this regulation is highly nuanced and operates at multiple levels allowing mitochondria to occupy a strategic position in the regulation of migration, as well as pathological events that rely on aberrant cell motility such as cancer metastasis. In this review, we summarize the crosstalk that exists between mitochondria and actin regulatory proteins, and further emphasize on how this interaction holds importance in cell migration in normal as well as dysregulated scenarios as in cancer.

The multifaceted roles of mitochondria at the crossroads of cell life and death in cancer

Mitochondria are the cytoplasmic organelles mostly known as the "electric engine" of the cells; however, they also play pivotal roles in different biological processes, such as cell growth/apoptosis, Ca²⁺ and redox homeostasis, and cell stemness. In cancer cells, mitochondria undergo peculiar functional and structural dynamics involved in the survival/death fate of the cell. Cancer cells use glycolysis to support macromolecular biosynthesis and energy production ("Warburg effect"); however, mitochondrial OXPHOS has been shown to be still active during carcinogenesis and even exacerbated in drug-resistant and stem cancer cells. This metabolic rewiring is associated with mutations in genes encoding mitochondrial metabolic enzymes ("oncometabolites"), alterations of ROS production and redox biology, and a fine-tuned balance between anti-/proapoptotic proteins. In cancer cells, mitochondria also experience dynamic alterations from the structural point of view undergoing coordinated cycles of biogenesis, fusion/fission and mitophagy, and physically communicating with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), through the Ca²⁺ flux, at the MAM (mitochondria-associated membranes) levels. This review addresses the peculiar mitochondrial metabolic and structural dynamics occurring in cancer cells and their role in coordinating the balance between cell survival and death. The role of mitochondrial dynamics as effective biomarkers of tumor progression and promising targets for anticancer strategies is also discussed.

Viruses and Metabolism: The Effects of Viral Infections and Viral Insulins on Host Metabolism

Over the past decades, there have been tremendous efforts to understand the cross-talk between viruses and host metabolism. Several studies have elucidated the mechanisms through which viral infections manipulate metabolic pathways including glucose, fatty acid, protein, and nucleotide metabolism. These pathways are evolutionarily conserved across the tree of life and extremely important for the host's nutrient utilization and energy production. In this review, we focus on host glucose, glutamine, and fatty acid metabolism and highlight the pathways manipulated by the different classes of viruses to increase their replication. We also explore a new system of viral hormones in which viruses mimic host hormones to manipulate the host endocrine system. We discuss viral insulin/IGF-1-like peptides and their potential effects on host metabolism. Together, these pathogenesis mechanisms targeting cellular signaling pathways create a multidimensional network of interactions between host and viral proteins. Defining and better understanding these mechanisms will help us to develop new therapeutic tools to prevent and treat viral infections.

Metabolic Strategies for Inhibiting Cancer Development

The tumor microenvironment is a complex mix of cancerous and noncancerous cells (especially immune cells and fibroblasts) with distinct metabolisms. These cells interact with each other and are influenced by the metabolic disorders of the host. In this review, we discuss how metabolic pathways that sustain biosynthesis in cancer cells could be targeted to increase the effectiveness of cancer therapies by limiting the nutrient uptake of the cell, inactivating metabolic enzymes (key regulatory ones or those linked to cell cycle progression), and inhibiting ATP production to induce cell death. Furthermore, we describe how the microenvironment could be targeted to activate the immune response by redirecting nutrients toward cytotoxic immune cells or inhibiting the release of waste products by cancer cells that stimulate immunosuppressive cells. We also examine metabolic disorders in the host that could be targeted to inhibit cancer development. To create future personalized therapies for targeting each cancer tumor, novel techniques must be developed, such as new tracers for positron emission tomography/computed tomography scan and immunohistochemical markers to characterize the metabolic phenotype of cancer cells and their microenvironment. Pending personalized strategies that specifically target all metabolic components of cancer development in a patient, simple metabolic interventions could be tested in clinical trials in combination with standard cancer therapies, such as short cycles of fasting or the administration of sodium citrate or weakly toxic compounds (such as curcumin, metformin, lipoic acid) that target autophagy and biosynthetic or signaling pathways.

Ginsenoside-Rg2 exerts anti-cancer effects through ROS-mediated AMPK activation associated mitochondrial damage and oxidation in MCF-7 cells

In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer effects of ginsenoside Rg2 (G-Rg2) and its underlying signaling pathways in breast cancer (BC) cells. G-Rg2 significantly induced cytotoxicity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in MCF-7 cells among various types of BC cells including HCC1428, T47D, and BT-549. G-Rg2 significantly inhibited protein and mRNA expression of cell cycle G1-S phase regulators, including p-Rb, cyclin D1, CDK4, and CDK6, whereas it enhanced the protein and mRNA expression of cell cycle arrest and apoptotic molecules including cleaved PARP, p21, p27, p53 and Bak through ROS production. These effects were abrogated by the antioxidant N-acetyl-I-cysteine, or NADPH oxidase inhibitors, such as diphenyleneiodonium chloride and apocynin. Interestingly, G-Rg2 induced mitochondrial damage by reducing the membrane potential. G-Rg2 further activated the ROS-sensor protein, AMPK and downstream targets of AMPK activation, including PGC-1α, FOXO1, and IDH2, and downregulated mTOR activation and antioxidant response element-driven luciferase activity. Together, our data demonstrate that G-Rg2 mediates anti-cancer effects by activating cell cycle arrest and signaling pathways related to mitochondrial damage-induced ROS production and apoptosis.

Sinomenine Suppresses Development of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells via Inhibiting MARCH1 and AMPK/STAT3 Signaling Pathway

Promotion of apoptosis and suppression of proliferation in tumor cells are popular strategies for developing anticancer drugs. Sinomenine (SIN), a plant-derived alkaloid, displays antitumor activity. However, the mechanism of action of SIN against hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is unclear. Herein, several molecular technologies, such as Western Blotting, qRT-PCR, flow cytometry, and gene knockdown were applied to explore the role and mechanism of action of SIN in the treatment of HCC. It was found that SIN arrests HCC cell cycle at G0/G1 phase, induces apoptosis, and suppresses proliferation of HCC cells via down-regulating the expression of membrane-associated RING-CH finger protein 1 (MARCH1). Moreover, SIN induces cell death and growth inhibition through AMPK/STAT3 signaling pathway. MARCH1 expression was silenced by siRNA to explore its involvement in the regulation of AMPK/STAT3 signaling pathway. Silencing MARCH1 caused down-regulation of phosphorylation of AMPK, STAT3 and decreased cell viability and function. Our results suggested that SIN inhibits proliferation and promotes apoptosis of HCC cells by MARCH1-mediated AMPK/STAT3 signaling pathway. This study provides new support for SIN as a clinical anticancer drug and illustrates that targeting MARCH1 could be a novel treatment strategy in developing anticancer therapeutics.

MAPK4 silencing together with a PARP1 inhibitor as a combination therapy in triple‑negative breast cancer cells

Triple‑negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most common type of cancer among females worldwide and is associated with poor prognosis. Poly ADP‑ribose polymerase‑1 (PARP1) inhibitors are effective against TNBC with mutations in the breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein (BRCA1) and/or BRCA2 genes; however, the development of resistance to PARP1 inhibitors limits their use. Thus, identifying strategies to overcome this resistance is urgently required. The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential function and mechanism of small interfering (si)RNA‑MAPK4 (siMAPK4) in enhancing the efficacy of a PARP1 inhibitor and reducing the resistance. In the present study, data on the mRNA expression level of MAPK4 in normal breast tissues and TNBC tissues were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas database. The mRNA and protein expression levels of MAPK4 in normal breast cells and TNBC cells were analyzed using reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blotting, respectively. The phosphorylated (p) histone H2AX (γH2AX) protein expression was assessed via immunofluorescence. Cell Counting Kit‑8, wound healing and TUNEL assays were used to determine the proliferative, migratory and apoptotic abilities of HCC1937 cells. MAPK4 was highly expressed in TNBC patient tissues and cell lines. Moreover, overexpression of MAPK4 could promote HCC1937 cell proliferation. Treatment of HCC1937 cells with the combination of siMAPK4 and a PARP1 inhibitor olaparib decreased their proliferation and migration and increased their apoptosis. The protein expression levels of the DNA repair‑related proteins p‑DNA‑dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA‑PK) and RAD51 recombinase (RAD51) were inhibited in the siMAPK4 and siMAPK4 + olaparib groups. However, the marker of a double‑stranded break γH2AX showed increased protein expression in the siMAPK4 + olaparib group. As MAPK4 could phosphorylate AKT at threonine 308 (AKTT308), the current study restored p‑AKT^T308 using a constitutively active AKT plasmid (AKT‑CA). p‑DNA‑PK and RAD51 showed high expression and γH2AX exhibited lower protein expression in the AKT‑CA group. The present findings suggested that siMAPK4 can enhance the sensitivity of TNBC cells to PARP1 inhibitors.

Role of SIRT1/AMPK signaling in the proliferation, migration and invasion of renal cell carcinoma cells

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is a lethal urologic tumor commonly seen in men that best responds to partial nephrectomy. An enhanced understanding of the molecular pathogenesis of RCC can broaden treatment options and tumor prevention strategies. Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) is a NAD+‑dependent deacetylase that regulates several bioactive substances, and the present study aimed to identify the role of SIRT1/AMP‑activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling in RCC progression. SIRT1 expression was detected in 100 patients with RCC using tissue microarray immunohistochemistry. SIRT1‑knockdown and overexpression were performed via RNA interference and plasmid transfection. Inhibition of AMPK was used for the phenotypic rescue assays to verify whether AMPK was a downstream target of SIRT1. Reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR was performed to verify transfection efficiency. Transwell, MTT and flow cytometry apoptosis assays were performed to evaluate the migration, invasion, proliferation and early apoptosis level of RCC cells. SIRT1 and AMPK protein expression in human RCC tissues and cell lines (786‑O and ACHN) was detected using western blotting and immunofluorescence staining. The current results, combined with data from The Cancer Genome Atlas database, revealed that SIRT1 expression in RCC tissues was downregulated compared with in adjacent normal tissues. Additionally, high SIRT1 expression was associated with an improved prognosis in patients with RCC. Overexpression of SIRT1 inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of RCC cell lines and induced apoptosis, while inhibition of SIRT1 expression had the opposite effects. Further experiments indicated that SIRT1 may serve an anticancer role by upregulating the expression levels of downstream AMPK, thus revealing a potential therapeutic target for RCC.

Mitochondria: The metabolic switch of cellular oncogenic transformation

Mitochondria, well recognized as the "powerhouse" of cells, are maternally inherited organelles with bacterial ancestry that play essential roles in a myriad of cellular functions. It has become profoundly evident that mitochondria regulate a wide array of cellular and metabolic functions, including biosynthetic metabolism, cell signaling, redox homeostasis, and cell survival. Correspondingly, defects in normal mitochondrial functioning have been implicated in various human malignancies. Cancer development involves the activation of oncogenes, inactivation of tumor suppressor genes, and impairment of apoptotic programs in cells. Mitochondria have been recognized as the site of key metabolic switches for normal cells to acquire a malignant phenotype. This review outlines the role of mitochondria in human malignancies and highlights potential aspects of mitochondrial metabolism that could be targeted for therapeutic development.

LKB1 deficiency-induced metabolic reprogramming in tumorigenesis and non-neoplastic diseases

Background

Live kinase B1 (LKB1) is a tumor suppressor that is mutated in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) and a variety of cancers. Lkb1 encodes serine-threonine kinase (STK) 11 that activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and its 13 superfamily members, regulating multiple biological processes, such as cell polarity, cell cycle arrest, embryo development, apoptosis, and bioenergetics metabolism. Increasing evidence has highlighted that deficiency of LKB1 in cancer cells induces extensive metabolic alterations that promote tumorigenesis and development. LKB1 also participates in the maintenance of phenotypes and functions of normal cells through metabolic regulation.

Scope of review

Given the important role of LKB1 in metabolic regulation, we provide an overview of the association of metabolic alterations in glycolysis, aerobic oxidation, the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), gluconeogenesis, glutamine, lipid, and serine induced by aberrant LKB1 signals in tumor progression, non-neoplastic diseases, and functions of immune cells.

Major conclusions

In this review, we summarize layers of evidence demonstrating that disordered metabolisms in glucose, glutamine, lipid, and serine caused by LKB1 deficiency promote carcinogenesis and non-neoplastic diseases. The metabolic reprogramming resulting from the loss of LKB1 confers cancer cells with growth or survival advantages. Nevertheless, it also causes a metabolic frangibility for LKB1-deficient cancer cells. The metabolic regulation of LKB1 also plays a vital role in maintaining cellular phenotype in the progression of non-neoplastic diseases. In addition, lipid metabolic regulation of LKB1 plays an important role in controlling the function, activity, proliferation, and differentiation of several types of immune cells. We conclude that in-depth knowledge of metabolic pathways regulated by LKB1 is conducive to identifying therapeutic targets and developing drug combinations to treat cancers and metabolic diseases and achieve immunoregulation.

Cancer cell metabolism: Rewiring the mitochondrial hub

To adapt to tumoral environment conditions or even to escape chemotherapy, cells rapidly reprogram their metabolism to handle adversities and survive. Given the rapid rise of studies uncovering novel insights and therapeutic opportunities based on the role of mitochondria in tumor metabolic programing and therapeutics, this review summarizes most significant developments in the field. Taking in mind the key role of mitochondria on carcinogenesis and tumor progression due to their involvement on tumor plasticity, metabolic remodeling, and signaling re-wiring, those organelles are also potential therapeutic targets. Among other topics, we address the recent data intersecting mitochondria as of prognostic value and staging in cancer, by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) determination, and current inhibitors developments targeting mtDNA, OXPHOS machinery and metabolic pathways. We contribute for a holistic view of the role of mitochondria metabolism and directed therapeutics to understand tumor metabolism, to circumvent therapy resistance, and to control tumor development.

The Warburg Effect 97 Years after Its Discovery

The deregulation of the oxidative metabolism in cancer, as shown by the increased aerobic glycolysis and impaired oxidative phosphorylation (Warburg effect), is coordinated by genetic changes leading to the activation of oncogenes and the loss of oncosuppressor genes. The understanding of the metabolic deregulation of cancer cells is necessary to prevent and cure cancer. In this review, we illustrate and comment the principal metabolic and molecular variations of cancer cells, involved in their anomalous behavior, that include modifications of oxidative metabolism, the activation of oncogenes that promote glycolysis and a decrease of oxygen consumption in cancer cells, the genetic susceptibility to cancer, the molecular correlations involved in the metabolic deregulation in cancer, the defective cancer mitochondria, the relationships between the Warburg effect and tumor therapy, and recent studies that reevaluate the Warburg effect. Taken together, these observations indicate that the Warburg effect is an epiphenomenon of the transformation process essential for the development of malignancy.

Therapeutic effect of metformin in the treatment of endometrial cancer

The present review aims at reviewing the role of metformin in the treatment of endometrial cancer (EC). According to the literature, excessive estrogen levels and insulin resistance are established risk factors of EC. As a traditional insulin sensitizer and newly discovered anticancer agent, metformin directly and indirectly inhibits the development of EC. The direct mechanisms of metformin include inhibition of the LKB1-AMP-activated protein kinase-mTOR, PI3K-Akt and insulin-like growth factor 1-related signaling pathways, which reduces the proliferation and promotes the apoptosis of EC cells. In the indirect mechanism, metformin increases the insulin sensitivity of body tissues and decreases circulating insulin levels. Decreased levels of insulin increase the blood levels of sex hormone binding globulin, which leads to reductions in circulating estrogen and androgens. The aforementioned findings suggest that metformin serves an important role in the treatment of EC. Increased understanding of the mechanism of metformin in EC may provide novel insights into the treatment of this malignancy.

NRF-1 and HIF-1α contribute to modulation of human VDAC1 gene promoter during starvation and hypoxia in HeLa cells

VDAC (Voltage Dependent Anion Channel) is a family of pore forming protein located in the outer mitochondrial membrane. Its channel property ensures metabolites exchange between mitochondria and the rest of the cell resulting in metabolism and bioenergetics regulation, and in cell death and life switch. VDAC1 is the best characterized and most abundant isoform, and is involved in many pathologies, as cancer or neurodegenerative diseases. However, little information is available about its gene expression regulation in normal and/or pathological conditions. In this work, we explored VDAC1 gene expression regulation in normal conditions and in the contest of some metabolic and energetic mitochondrial dysfunction and cell stress as example. The core of the putative promoter region was characterized in terms of transcription factors responsive elements both by bioinformatic studies and promoter activity experiments. In particular, we found an abundant presence of NRF-1 sites, together with other transcription factors binding sites involved in cell growth, proliferation, development, and we studied their prevalence in gene activity. Furthermore, upon depletion of nutrients or controlled hypoxia, as detected in various pathologies, we found that VDAC1 transcripts levels were significantly increased in a time related manner. VDAC1 promoter activity was also validated by gene reporter assays. According to PCR real-time experiments, it was confirmed that VDAC1 promoter activity is further stimulated when cells are exposed to stress. A bioinformatic survey suggested HIF-1α, besides NRF-1, as a most active TFBS. Their validation was obtained by TFBS mutagenesis and TF overexpression experiments. In conclusion, we experimentally demonstrated the involvement of both NRF-1 and HIF-1α in the regulation of VDAC1 promoter activation at basal level and in some peculiar cell stress conditions.

Metabolic Heterogeneity of Cancer Cells: An Interplay between HIF-1, GLUTs, and AMPK

It has been long recognized that cancer cells reprogram their metabolism under hypoxia conditions due to a shift from oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) to glycolysis in order to meet elevated requirements in energy and nutrients for proliferation, migration, and survival. However, data accumulated over recent years has increasingly provided evidence that cancer cells can revert from glycolysis to OXPHOS and maintain both reprogrammed and oxidative metabolism, even in the same tumor. This phenomenon, denoted as cancer cell metabolic plasticity or hybrid metabolism, depends on a tumor micro-environment that is highly heterogeneous and influenced by an intensity of vasculature and blood flow, oxygen concentration, and nutrient and energy supply, and requires regulatory interplay between multiple oncogenes, transcription factors, growth factors, and reactive oxygen species (ROS), among others. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) represent key modulators of a switch between reprogrammed and oxidative metabolism. The present review focuses on cross-talks between HIF-1, glucose transporters (GLUTs), and AMPK with other regulatory proteins including oncogenes such as c-Myc, p53, and KRAS; growth factor-initiated protein kinase B (PKB)/Akt, phosphatydyl-3-kinase (PI3K), and mTOR signaling pathways; and tumor suppressors such as liver kinase B1 (LKB1) and TSC1 in controlling cancer cell metabolism. The multiple switches between metabolic pathways can underlie chemo-resistance to conventional anti-cancer therapy and should be taken into account in choosing molecular targets to discover novel anti-cancer drugs.

Tamoxifen inhibits cell proliferation by impaired glucose metabolism in gallbladder cancer

Gallbladder cancer (GBC) is the leading malignancy of biliary system showing refractory chemoresistance to current first-line drugs. Growing epidemiological evidences have established that the incidence of GBC exhibits significant gender predominance with females two-threefold higher than males, suggesting oestrogen/oestrogen receptors (ERs) signalling might be a critical driver of tumorigenesis in gallbladder. This study aims to evaluate the antitumour activity of tamoxifen (TAM), a major agent of hormonal therapy for breast cancer, in preclinical GBC model. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to investigate mRNA levels. Protein expression was measured by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Glycolytic levels were measured by glucose consumption and lactic acid measurement. The antitumour activity of TAM alone or with cisplatin was examined with CCK8 assay, colony formation, flow cytometry and in vivo models. The results revealed that ERɑ expression was higher in GBC tissues and predicted poor clinical outcomes. TAM was showed effective against a variety of GBC cell lines. Mechanical investigations revealed that TAM enabled potent reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by reduced nuclear factor Nrf2 expression and its target genes, leading to the activation of AMPK, which subsequently induced impaired glycolysis and survival advantages. Notably, TAM was demonstrated to sensitize GBC cells to cisplatin (CDDP) both in vitro and in vivo. In agreement with these findings, elimination of oestrogens by ovariectomy in nude mice prevented CDDP resistance. In summary, these results provide basis for TAM treatment for GBC and shed novel light on the potential application of endocrine therapy for patients with GBC.

Fluid flow-induced activation of subcellular AMPK and its interaction with FAK and Src

AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a metabolic energy sensor that plays a critical role in cancer cell survival and growth. While the physical microenvironment is believed to influence tumor growth and progression, its role in AMPK regulation remains largely unknown. In the present study, we evaluated AMPK response to mechanical forces and its interaction with other mechano-responsive signaling proteins, FAK and Src. Using genetically encoded biosensors that can detect AMPK activities at different subcellular locations (cytosol, plasma membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, and Golgi apparatus), we observed that AMPK responds to shear stress in a subcellular location-dependent manner in breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). While normal epithelial cells (MCF-10A) also similarly responded to shear stress, they are less sensitive to shear stress compared to MDA-MB-231 cells. Inhibition of FAK and Src significantly decreased the basal activity level of AMPK at all five subcellular locations in MDA-MB-231 cells and selectively blocked shear stress-induced AMPK activation. Moreover, testing with cytoskeletal drugs revealed that myosin II might be the critical mediator of shear stress-induced AMPK activation in MDA-MB-231 cells. These findings suggest that breast cancer cells and normal epithelial cells may have different mechanosensitivity in AMPK signaling and that FAK and Src as well as the myosin II-dependent signaling pathway are involved in subcellular AMPK mechanotransduction in breast cancer cells.

AMP-activated protein kinase regulates cancer cell growth and metabolism via nuclear and mitochondria events

Adenine monophosphate‐activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a fuel sensing enzyme that is activated in shortage of energy and inhibited in its surplus. Cancer is a metabolic disease characteristic of aerobic glycolysis, namely Warburg effect, and possesses heterogeneity featured by spatiotemporal hypoxia and normoxia, where AMPK is deeply implicated. The present study delineates the regulation of mitochondrial functions by AMPK in cancer cells. On the one hand, AMPKα subunit binds to mitochondria independently of β subunit and targeting AMPK to mitochondria facilitates oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation, and inhibits glycolysis. As such, mitochondrial AMPK inhibits the growth of cancer cells and tumorigenesis. On the other hand, ablation of the β subunits completely abolishes AMPK activity and simultaneously leads to decreases in mitochondria DNA and protein contents. The effect of the β deletion is rescued by overexpression of the active mutant of bulky AMPKα1 subunit. In conjunction, the transcriptional factors PGC1α and Nrf‐1 are up‐regulated by LKB1/AMPK, an event that is abolished in the absence of the β subunits. Intriguingly, the stimulation of mitochondria biogenesis is not achieved by mitochondria‐targeted AMPK. Therefore, our study suggests that AMPK inhibits cancer cell growth and tumorigenesis via regulation of mitochondria‐mediated metabolism.