1
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Farleigh K, Ascanio A, Farleigh ME, Schield DR, Card DC, Leal M, Castoe TA, Jezkova T, Rodríguez-Robles JA. Signals of differential introgression in the genome of natural hybrids of Caribbean anoles. Mol Ecol 2023; 32:6000-6017. [PMID: 37861454 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Hybridization facilitates recombination between divergent genetic lineages and can be shaped by both neutral and selective processes. Upon hybridization, loci with no net fitness effects introgress randomly from parental species into the genomes of hybrid individuals. Conversely, alleles from one parental species at some loci may provide a selective advantage to hybrids, resulting in patterns of introgression that do not conform to random expectations. We investigated genomic patterns of differential introgression in natural hybrids of two species of Caribbean anoles, Anolis pulchellus and A. krugi in Puerto Rico. Hybrids exhibit A. pulchellus phenotypes but possess A. krugi mitochondrial DNA, originated from multiple, independent hybridization events, and appear to have replaced pure A. pulchellus across a large area in western Puerto Rico. Combining genome-wide SNP datasets with bioinformatic methods to identify signals of differential introgression in hybrids, we demonstrate that the genomes of hybrids are dominated by pulchellus-derived alleles and show only 10%-20% A. krugi ancestry. The majority of A. krugi loci in hybrids exhibit a signal of non-random differential introgression and include loci linked to genes involved in development and immune function. Three of these genes (delta like canonical notch ligand 1, jagged1 and notch receptor 1) affect cell differentiation and growth and interact with mitochondrial function. Our results suggest that differential non-random introgression for a subset of loci may be driven by selection favouring the inheritance of compatible mitochondrial and nuclear-encoded genes in hybrids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keaka Farleigh
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | | | | | - Drew R Schield
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Daren C Card
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Manuel Leal
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas, Arlington, Arlington, Texas, USA
| | - Tereza Jezkova
- Department of Biology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
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2
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Wogan GOU, Yuan ML, Mahler DL, Wang IJ. Hybridization and Transgressive Evolution Generate Diversity in an Adaptive Radiation of Anolis Lizards. Syst Biol 2023; 72:874-884. [PMID: 37186031 PMCID: PMC10687355 DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syad026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Interspecific hybridization may act as a major force contributing to the evolution of biodiversity. Although generally thought to reduce or constrain divergence between 2 species, hybridization can, paradoxically, promote divergence by increasing genetic variation or providing novel combinations of alleles that selection can act upon to move lineages toward new adaptive peaks. Hybridization may, then, play a key role in adaptive radiation by allowing lineages to diversify into new ecological space. Here, we test for signatures of historical hybridization in the Anolis lizards of Puerto Rico and evaluate 2 hypotheses for the role of hybridization in facilitating adaptive radiation-the hybrid swarm origins hypothesis and the syngameon hypothesis. Using whole genome sequences from all 10 species of Puerto Rican anoles, we calculated D and f-statistics (from ABBA-BABA tests) to test for introgression across the radiation and employed multispecies network coalescent methods to reconstruct phylogenetic networks that allow for hybridization. We then analyzed morphological data for these species to test for patterns consistent with transgressive evolution, a phenomenon in which the trait of a hybrid lineage is found outside of the range of its 2 parents. Our analyses uncovered strong evidence for introgression at multiple stages of the radiation, including support for an ancient hybrid origin of a clade comprising half of the extant Puerto Rican anole species. Moreover, we detected significant signals of transgressive evolution for 2 ecologically important traits, head length and toepad width, the latter of which has been described as a key innovation in Anolis. [Adaptive radiation; introgression; multispecies network coalescent; phenotypic evolution; phylogenetic network; reticulation; syngameon; transgressive segregation.].
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Affiliation(s)
- Guinevere O U Wogan
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Michael L Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - D Luke Mahler
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada
| | - Ian J Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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3
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Chen B, Bai Y, Wang J, Ke Q, Zhou Z, Zhou T, Pan Y, Wu R, Wu X, Zheng W, Xu P. Population structure and genome-wide evolutionary signatures reveal putative climate-driven habitat change and local adaptation in the large yellow croaker. MARINE LIFE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 5:141-154. [PMID: 37275538 PMCID: PMC10232709 DOI: 10.1007/s42995-023-00165-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) is one of the most economically valuable marine fish in China and is a notable species in ecological studies owing to a serious collapse of wild germplasm in the past few decades. The stock division and species distribution, which have important implications for ecological protection, germplasm recovery, and fishery resource management, have been debated since the 1960s. However, it is still uncertain even how many stocks exist in this species. To address this, we evaluated the fine-scale genetic structure of large yellow croaker populations distributed along the eastern and southern Chinese coastline based on 7.64 million SNP markers. Compared with the widely accepted stock boundaries proposed in the 1960s, our results revealed that a climate-driven habitat change probably occurred between the Naozhou (Nanhai) Stock and the Ming-Yuedong (Mindong) Stock. The boundary between these two stocks might have shifted northwards from the Pearl River Estuary to the northern area of the Taiwan Strait, accompanied by highly asymmetric introgression. In addition, we found divergent landscapes of natural selection between the stocks inhabiting northern and southern areas. The northern population exhibited highly agminated signatures of strong natural selection in genes related to developmental processes, whereas moderate and interspersed selective signatures were detected in many immune-related genes in the southern populations. These findings establish the stock status and genome-wide evolutionary landscapes of large yellow croaker, providing a basis for conservation, fisheries management and further evolutionary biology studies. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42995-023-00165-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baohua Chen
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
- National Key Laboratory of Mariculture Breeding, Ningde Fufa Fisheries Company Limited, Ningde, 352000 China
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Yulin Bai
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Jiaying Wang
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Qiaozhen Ke
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
- National Key Laboratory of Mariculture Breeding, Ningde Fufa Fisheries Company Limited, Ningde, 352000 China
| | - Zhixiong Zhou
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Tao Zhou
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
| | - Ying Pan
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
- Institute of Biotechnology, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, 350000 China
| | - Renxie Wu
- College of Fisheries, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, 524088 China
| | - Xiongfei Wu
- Ningbo Academy of Oceanology and Fishery, Ningbo, 315012 China
| | - Weiqiang Zheng
- National Key Laboratory of Mariculture Breeding, Ningde Fufa Fisheries Company Limited, Ningde, 352000 China
| | - Peng Xu
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Genetics and Breeding of Marine Organisms, College of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
- National Key Laboratory of Mariculture Breeding, Ningde Fufa Fisheries Company Limited, Ningde, 352000 China
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102 China
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4
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DeVos TB, Bock DG, Kolbe JJ. Rapid introgression of non-native alleles following hybridization between a native Anolis lizard species and a cryptic invader across an urban landscape. Mol Ecol 2023; 32:2930-2944. [PMID: 36811388 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Invasive species can impact native populations through competition, predation, habitat alteration, and disease transmission, but also genetically through hybridization. Potential outcomes of hybridization span the continuum from extinction to hybrid speciation and can be further complicated by anthropogenic habitat disturbance. Hybridization between the native green anole lizard (Anolis carolinensis) and a morphologically similar invader (A. porcatus) in south Florida provides an ideal opportunity to study interspecific admixture across a heterogeneous landscape. We used reduced-representation sequencing to describe introgression in this hybrid system and to test for a relationship between urbanization and non-native ancestry. Our findings indicate that hybridization between green anole lineages was probably a limited, historic event, producing a hybrid population characterized by a diverse continuum of ancestry proportions. Genomic cline analyses revealed rapid introgression and disproportionate representation of non-native alleles at many loci and no evidence for reproductive isolation between parental species. Three loci were associated with urban habitat characteristics; urbanization and non-native ancestry were positively correlated, although this relationship did not remain significant when accounting for spatial nonindependence. Ultimately, our study demonstrates the persistence of non-native genetic material even in the absence of ongoing immigration, indicating that selection favouring non-native alleles can override the demographic limitation of low propagule pressure. We also note that not all outcomes of admixture between native and non-native species should be considered intrinsically negative. Hybridization with ecologically robust invaders can lead to adaptive introgression, which may facilitate the long-term survival of native populations otherwise unable to adapt to anthropogenically mediated global change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler B DeVos
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Dan G Bock
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jason J Kolbe
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island, USA
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5
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Bell RC, Irian CG. Phenotypic and genetic divergence in reed frogs across a mosaic hybrid zone on São Tomé Island. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Although naturally heterogeneous environments can lead to mosaic hybrid zones, human-induced habitat fragmentation can also lead to environmental heterogeneity and hybridization. Here we quantify phenotypic and molecular divergence across a reed frog mosaic hybrid zone on São Tomé Island as a first step towards understanding the consequences of hybridization across this heterogeneous landscape. The São Tomé giant reed frog (Hyperolius thomensis) is strongly tied to cool, wet, forest habitats whereas the distribution of Moller’s reed frog (H. molleri) spans cool, wet, forests to warm, dry, disturbed habitats. Correspondingly, hybridization is concentrated in the more forested, cool, wet sites relative to non-forested, warmer, drier habitats. Four of six sites with hybrid frogs are artificial water bodies near the forest edge, indicating that both breeding habitat and broader scale environmental variation are probably important for understanding interspecific interactions and the extent of hybridization in this system. Phenotypic variation (body size and ventral coloration) largely tracks genetic and environmental variation across the hybrid zone with larger and more pigmented frogs occurring in forested, cool, wet habitats. Understanding whether human-induced changes in habitat break down reproductive barriers will be essential for conservation management of the less abundant, forest-associated H. thomensis in the face of rampant hybridization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayna C Bell
- Department of Vertebrate Zoology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Christian G Irian
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
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6
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Lambert SM, Streicher JW, Fisher‐Reid MC, Méndez de la Cruz FR, Martínez‐Méndez N, García-Vázquez UO, Nieto Montes de Oca A, Wiens JJ. Inferring introgression using RADseq and
D
FOIL
: Power and pitfalls revealed in a case study of spiny lizards (
Sceloporus
). Mol Ecol Resour 2019; 19:818-837. [DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shea M. Lambert
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson Arizona
| | - Jeffrey W. Streicher
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson Arizona
- Department of Life Sciences The Natural History Museum London UK
| | - M. Caitlin Fisher‐Reid
- Department of Biological Sciences Bridgewater State University Bridgewater Massachusetts
| | - Fausto R. Méndez de la Cruz
- Laboratorio de Herpetología, Instituto de Biología Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City Mexico
| | - Norberto Martínez‐Méndez
- Laboratorio de Bioconservación y Manejo, Departamento de Zoología Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City Mexico
| | - Uri Omar García-Vázquez
- Unidad Multidisciplinaria de Investigación, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City Mexico
| | - Adrián Nieto Montes de Oca
- Departamento de Biología Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Mexico City Mexico
| | - John J. Wiens
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson Arizona
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7
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Wegener JE, Pita‐Aquino JN, Atutubo J, Moreno A, Kolbe JJ. Hybridization and rapid differentiation after secondary contact between the native green anole ( Anolis carolinensis) and the introduced green anole ( Anolis porcatus). Ecol Evol 2019; 9:4138-4148. [PMID: 31015994 PMCID: PMC6468060 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In allopatric species, reproductive isolation evolves through the accumulation of genetic incompatibilities. The degree of divergence required for complete reproductive isolation is highly variable across taxa, which makes the outcome of secondary contact between allopatric species unpredictable. Since before the Pliocene, two species of Anolis lizards, Anolis carolinensis and Anolis porcatus, have been allopatric, yet this period of independent evolution has not led to substantial species-specific morphological differentiation, and therefore, they might not be reproductively isolated. In this study, we determined the genetic consequences of localized, secondary contact between the native green anole, A. carolinensis, and the introduced Cuban green anole, A. porcatus, in South Miami. Using 18 microsatellite markers, we found that the South Miami population formed a genetic cluster distinct from both parental species. Mitochondrial DNA revealed maternal A. porcatus ancestry for 35% of the individuals sampled from this population, indicating a high degree of cytonuclear discordance. Thus, hybridization with A. porcatus, not just population structure within A. carolinensis, may be responsible for the genetic distinctiveness of this population. Using tree-based maximum-likelihood analysis, we found support for a more recent, secondary introduction of A. porcatus to Florida. Evidence that ~33% of the nuclear DNA resulted from a secondary introduction supports the hybrid origin of the green anole population in South Miami. We used multiple lines of evidence and multiple genetic markers to reconstruct otherwise cryptic patterns of species introduction and hybridization. Genetic evidence for a lack of reproductive isolation, as well as morphological similarities between the two species, supports revising the taxonomy of A. carolinensis to include A. porcatus from western Cuba. Future studies should target the current geographic extent of introgression originating from the past injection of genetic material from Cuban green anoles and determine the consequences for the evolutionary trajectory of green anole populations in southern Florida.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna E. Wegener
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Rhode IslandKingstonRhode Island
| | | | - Jessica Atutubo
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Rhode IslandKingstonRhode Island
| | - Adam Moreno
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyBrown UniversityProvidenceRhode Island
- Present address:
College of Veterinary MedicineOhio State UniversityColumbusOhio
| | - Jason J. Kolbe
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Rhode IslandKingstonRhode Island
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8
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Grabenstein KC, Taylor SA. Breaking Barriers: Causes, Consequences, and Experimental Utility of Human-Mediated Hybridization. Trends Ecol Evol 2018; 33:198-212. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2017.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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9
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Haines ML, Melville J, Sumner J, Clemann N, Chapple DG, Stuart-Fox D. Geographic variation in hybridization and ecological differentiation between three syntopic, morphologically similar species of montane lizards. Mol Ecol 2016; 25:2887-903. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.13652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. L. Haines
- Sciences Department; Museum Victoria; GPO Box 666 Melbourne Vic. 3001 Australia
- Biosciences; University of Melbourne; Parkville Vic. 3010 Australia
| | - J. Melville
- Sciences Department; Museum Victoria; GPO Box 666 Melbourne Vic. 3001 Australia
| | - J. Sumner
- Sciences Department; Museum Victoria; GPO Box 666 Melbourne Vic. 3001 Australia
| | - N. Clemann
- Sciences Department; Museum Victoria; GPO Box 666 Melbourne Vic. 3001 Australia
- Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research; Department of Environment; Land, Water, and Planning; PO Box 137 Heidelberg Vic. 3084 Australia
| | - D. G. Chapple
- School of Biological Sciences; Monash University; Clayton Vic. 3800 Australia
| | - D. Stuart-Fox
- Biosciences; University of Melbourne; Parkville Vic. 3010 Australia
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10
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Phylogenetic evidence of historic mitochondrial introgression and cryptic diversity in the genus Pseudemoia (Squamata: Scincidae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2014; 81:86-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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11
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Dong J, Mao X, Sun H, Irwin DM, Zhang S, Hua P. Introgression of mitochondrial DNA promoted by natural selection in the Japanese pipistrelle bat (Pipistrellus abramus). Genetica 2014; 142:483-94. [DOI: 10.1007/s10709-014-9794-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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12
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Garvin MR, Bielawski JP, Sazanov LA, Gharrett AJ. Review and meta-analysis of natural selection in mitochondrial complex I in metazoans. J ZOOL SYST EVOL RES 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/jzs.12079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. Garvin
- Fisheries Division; School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences; University of Alaska Fairbanks; Juneau AK USA
| | - Joseph P. Bielawski
- Department of Biology; Dalhousie University; Halifax NS Canada
- Department of Mathematics & Statistics; Dalhousie University; Halifax NS Canada
| | | | - Anthony J. Gharrett
- Fisheries Division; School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences; University of Alaska Fairbanks; Juneau AK USA
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13
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Myers EA, Rodríguez-Robles JA, DeNardo DF, Staub RE, Stropoli A, Ruane S, Burbrink FT. Multilocus phylogeographic assessment of the California Mountain Kingsnake (Lampropeltis zonata) suggests alternative patterns of diversification for the California Floristic Province. Mol Ecol 2013; 22:5418-29. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.12478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. A. Myers
- Department of Biology; The Graduate School; City University of New York; NY 10016 USA
- Department of Biology; 6S-143; College of Staten Island; 2800 Victory Boulevard Staten Island NY 10314 USA
| | - J. A. Rodríguez-Robles
- School of Life Sciences; University of Nevada; 4505 Maryland Parkway Las Vegas NV 89154-4004 USA
| | - D. F. DeNardo
- School of Life Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe AZ 85287-4501 USA
| | | | - A. Stropoli
- Science, Math and Engineering; Staten Island Technical High School; 485 Clawson Street Staten Island New York 10306 USA
| | - S. Ruane
- Department of Biology; The Graduate School; City University of New York; NY 10016 USA
- Department of Biology; 6S-143; College of Staten Island; 2800 Victory Boulevard Staten Island NY 10314 USA
| | - F. T. Burbrink
- Department of Biology; The Graduate School; City University of New York; NY 10016 USA
- Department of Biology; 6S-143; College of Staten Island; 2800 Victory Boulevard Staten Island NY 10314 USA
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