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Ruiz A, Torrecillas S, Kashinskaya E, Andree KB, Solovyev M, Gisbert E. Comparative study of the gut microbial communities collected by scraping and swabbing in a fish model: a comprehensive guide to promote non-lethal procedures for gut microbial studies. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1374803. [PMID: 38585300 PMCID: PMC10997143 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1374803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we propose the use of swabs in non-lethal sampling procedures to collect the mucosa-adhered gut microbiota from the posterior intestine of fish, and therefore, we compare the bacterial communities collected by conventional scraping and by swabbing methods. For this purpose, samples of the posterior intestine of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were collected first using the swabbing approach, and after fish euthanasia, by mucosa scraping. Finally, bacterial communities were compared by 16S rRNA gene Illumina sequencing. Results from the current study revealed that similar values of bacterial richness and diversity were found for both sampling procedures. Similarly, there were no differences between procedures when using qualitative metrics (Jaccard and unweighted UniFrac) for estimating inter-individual diversity, but the quantitative metrics (Bray-Curtis and weighted UniFrac) showed a higher dispersion when samples were obtained by swabbing compared to scraping. In terms of bacterial composition, there were differences in abundance for the phyla Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. The cause of these differential abundances may be the inability of the swab to access to certain areas, such as the basal region of the intestinal villi. Moreover, swabbing allowed a higher representation of low abundant taxa, which may also have an important role in host microbiome regardless of their low abundance. Overall, our results demonstrate that the sampling method is a factor to be considered in experimental design when studying gut bacterial communities to avoid potential biases in the interpretation or comparison of results from different studies. In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of each procedure (swabbing vs scraping) are discussed in detail, concluding that swabbing can be implemented as a reliable and non-lethal procedure for posterior gut microbiota studies, which is of particular interest for animal welfare and the 3Rs principle, and may offer a wide range of novel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Ruiz
- Aquaculture Program, Centre de La Ràpita, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), La Ràpita, Spain
| | - Silvia Torrecillas
- Aquaculture Program, Centre de La Ràpita, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), La Ràpita, Spain
| | - Elena Kashinskaya
- Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Karl B. Andree
- Aquaculture Program, Centre de La Ràpita, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), La Ràpita, Spain
| | - Mikhail Solovyev
- Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
- A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Biological Institute, Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia
| | - Enric Gisbert
- Aquaculture Program, Centre de La Ràpita, Institut de Recerca i Tecnologia Agroalimentàries (IRTA), La Ràpita, Spain
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Zhang C, Hu L, Hao J, Cai W, Qin M, Gao Q, Nie M, Qi D, Ma R. Effects of plant-derived protein and rapeseed oil on growth performance and gut microbiomes in rainbow trout. BMC Microbiol 2023; 23:255. [PMID: 37704987 PMCID: PMC10498547 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-023-02998-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is becoming popular with the increased demand for fish protein. However, the limited resources and expense of fish meal and oil have become restrictive factors for the development of the rainbow trout related industry. To solve this problem, plant-derived proteins and vegetable oils have been developed as alternative resources. The present study focuses on evaluating the effects of two experimental diets, FMR (fish meal replaced with plant-derived protein) and FOR (fish oil replaced with rapeseed oil), through the alteration of the gut microbiota in triploid rainbow trout. The commercial diet was used in the control group (FOM). RESULTS Amplicon sequencing of the 16S and 18S rRNA genes was used to assess the changes in gut bacteria and fungi. Our analysis suggested that the α-diversity of both bacteria and fungi decreased significantly in the FMR and FOR groups, and β-diversity was distinct between FOM/FMR and FOM/FOR based on principal coordinate analysis (PCoA). The abundance of the Planctomycetota phylum increased significantly in the FMR group, while that of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes decreased. We also found that the fungal phylum Ascomycota was significantly increased in the FMR and FOR groups. At the genus level, we found that the abundance of Citrobacter was the lowest and that of pathogenic Schlesneria, Brevundimonas, and Mycoplasma was highest in the FMR and FOR groups. Meanwhile, the pathogenic fungal genera Verticillium and Aspergillus were highest in the FMR and FOR groups. Furthermore, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) and network analysis suggested that the relatively low-abundance genera, including the beneficial bacteria Methylobacterium, Enterococcus, Clostridium, Exiguobacterium, Sphingomonas and Bacteroides and the fungi Papiliotrema, Preussia, and Stachybotrys, were positively correlated with plant protein or rapeseed oil. There were more modules that had the above beneficial genera as the hub nodes in the FMR and FOR groups. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggested that the FMR and FOR diets could affect the gut microbiome in rainbow trout, which might offset the effects of the dominant and pathogenic microbial genera. This could be the underlying mechanism of explaining why no significant difference was observed in body weight between the different groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cunfang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Lingyong Hu
- Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Jiahui Hao
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
- College of Eco-Environmental Engineering, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Weijie Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
- College of Eco-Environmental Engineering, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Minxin Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
- College of Eco-Environmental Engineering, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Qiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Miaomiao Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Delin Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China
| | - Rui Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Plateau Ecology and Agriculture, Qinghai University, Xining, 810001, China.
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Aroh O, Liles MR, Halanych KM. Genomic characterization of a novel, widely distributed Mycoplasma species "Candidatus Mycoplasma mahonii" associated with the brittlestar Gorgonocephalus chilensis. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0290305. [PMID: 37616244 PMCID: PMC10449156 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0290305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Symbiotic relationships are ubiquitous throughout the world's oceans, yet for many marine organisms, including those in the high latitudes, little is understood about symbiotic associations and functional relationships. From a recently determined genome sequence of a filter-feeding basket star from Argentina, Gorgonocephalus chilensis, we discovered a novel Mycoplasma species with a 796Kb genome (CheckM completeness of 97.9%, G+C content = 30.1%). Similar to other Mycoplasma spp. within Mycoplasmatota, genomic analysis of the novel organism revealed reduced metabolic pathways including incomplete biosynthetic pathways, suggesting an obligate association with their basket star host. Results of 16S rRNA and multi-locus phylogenetic analyses revealed that this organism belonged to a recently characterized non-free-living lineage of Mycoplasma spp. specifically associated with marine invertebrate animals. Thus, the name "Candidatus Mycoplasma mahonii" is proposed for this novel species. Based on 16S rRNA PCR-screening, we found that Ca. M. mahonii also occurs in Gorgonocephalus eucnemis from the Northwest Pacific and other Gorgonocephalus chilensis from Argentinian waters. The level of sequence conservation within Ca. M. mahonii is considerable between widely disparate high-latitude Gorgonocephalus species, suggesting that oceanic dispersal of this microbe may be greater than excepted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluchi Aroh
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States of America
| | - Mark R. Liles
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States of America
| | - Kenneth M. Halanych
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States of America
- Centre for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, United States of America
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Sun L, Zhu M, Zhang L, Peng M, Li C, Wang L, Wang W, Ma Z, Li S, Zeng W, Yin M, Wang W, Chunyu W. Differences in microbiome of healthy Sprague Dawley rats with Paragonimus proliferus infection and potential pathogenic role of microbes in paragonimiasis. Acta Trop 2022; 233:106578. [PMID: 35779592 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Paragonimiasis, which is caused by Paragonimus, is considered to be a neglected tropical disease by the World Health Organization. The pathogenicity of Paragonimus mainly manifests as mechanical damage and immunotoxicity caused by adult worms and larvae. However, microbiota associated with Paragonimus and potential disturbance of host microbiota after infection are unknown. Paragonimus proliferus is a rare species, and its successful infection rate in experimental rats is 100%. In the current study, we compared the microbial community in lung tissues, small intestine contents, and fecal samples from Sprague Dawley (SD) rats with and without P. proliferus infection. To determine the impact of P. proliferus on the microbial community in rats, we identified the microbiota in adult worms of P. proliferus via high-throughput sequencing. Results showed dramatic differences in the composition of microbiota in lung tissues between infected and uninfected rats. Paragonimus metacercariae introduced both environmental and gut microbes into the lung tissues of rats. Many potentially pathogenic microbes were also found in the lung of infected rats. Paragonimus infection increased the chances of potentially pathogenic microbiota invading and colonizing the lungs. However, for the purpose of long-term parasitism, there might be a complex interrelationship between Paragonimus and microorganisms. Our study might shed lights on the understanding of the pathogenicity of Paragonimus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Sun
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Min Zhu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China; Department of Clinical Laboratory, Jiangyou People's Hospital, Mianyang, Sichuan 621700, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Man Peng
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Cuiying Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Liming Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Weiqun Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China; The Third People's Hospital of Kunming, Kunming, Yunnan 650043, China
| | - Shenghao Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China; The Third People's Hospital of Kunming, Kunming, Yunnan 650043, China
| | - Weilin Zeng
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China
| | - Min Yin
- School of Medicine, Yunnan University, 2 North Cui Hu Road, Kunming, Yunnan 650091, China.
| | - Wenlin Wang
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China.
| | - Weixun Chunyu
- Department of Pathogen Biology and Immunology, School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650500, China.
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Parshukov AN, Fokina NN, Sukhovskaya IV, Kantserova NP, Lysenko LA. Infection and antibiotic treatment have prolonged effect on gut microbiota, muscle and hepatic fatty acids in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J Appl Microbiol 2022; 133:1709-1724. [PMID: 35717574 DOI: 10.1111/jam.15674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The aim of the present study was to investigate the gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota and bacterium-specific fatty acid occurrence in the muscle and hepatic lipids of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792), both healthy and those naturally infected with bacterial pathogens. METHODS AND RESULTS From June 2017 (L1) to September 2018 (L8), 74 specimens of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (with the average weight from 139.2 ± 7.1 g (L1) to 2191.7 ± 85.1 g (L8)) were studied. Amplicon sequencing targeted to the V3-V4 region of 16S rRNA gene fragments is used for identification of taxonomic composition of gut bacterial communities. Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Tenericutes, and Fusobacteria were the major phyla. Besides behavioural and physiological manifestations of the bacterial mixed disease (yersiniosis, pseudomonosis, and flavobacteriosis), some disorders induced both the infection and followed antibiotic treatment were detected in the host organism, including (1) a progressive decrease in the content of odd-chain saturated fatty acids of bacterial origin within the trout lipid molecules and (2) abnormalities in trout GI tract microbiota, such as the elimination of LAB and progressive occurrence of certain bacterial taxa, particularly Mycoplasmataceae. CONCLUSIONS The GI bacterial flora varied principally due to Mycoplasmataceae and Lactobacillaceae, which could be considered in the search for bioindicators. The content of specific bacterium-derived fatty acids incorporated into the lipids of trout muscle and hepatic seems to be related to the prevalence of bacterial taxa, and their deficit could be regarded as an early warning sign of microbiota disturbance. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY Our results demonstrated that infectious disease and antibiotic treatment of reared species can cause pertinent imbalance in their gut microbiota and reduce the abundance of specific fatty acids. This can be useful for the sustainable aquaculture industry due to development of early indication technologies for rapid disease diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A N Parshukov
- Institute of Biology of the Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia
| | - N N Fokina
- Institute of Biology of the Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia
| | - I V Sukhovskaya
- Institute of Biology of the Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia
| | - N P Kantserova
- Institute of Biology of the Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia
| | - L A Lysenko
- Institute of Biology of the Karelian Research Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Petrozavodsk, Russia
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Zhang X, Jin Z, Shen M, Chang Z, Yu G, Wang L, Xia X. Accumulation of polyethylene microplastics induces oxidative stress, microbiome dysbiosis and immunoregulation in crayfish. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 125:276-284. [PMID: 35526797 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2022.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics have become a worldwide pollutant, widely discovered in soil, air and aquatic environment. Microplastics have been found in habitats where crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) cultivated, but the impact of microplastics on crayfish remains unclear. In this study, after 21-day dietary exposure, polyethylene (PE) particles were found to accumulate in intestine, hepatopancreas, gills and hemolymph of crayfish. Furthermore, PE particles can still be detected in these tissues after a 7-day depuration in clean water. PE retained in these tissues caused oxidative stress responses, as indicated by the change of oxidative-stress-related index, such as the increase of H2O2 level and SOD activity. PE exposure also caused hemocytic encapsulation in crayfish hepatopancreas and increase of mucus secretion in intestine. Moreover, PE exposure affected the microbiota balance in crayfish, by reducing the total microbiota abundance and altering the proportions of many bacterial families. Interestingly, results showed that PE exposure led to of lower numbers of hemocytes and declination of phenoloxidase activity. Finally, PE exposure induced the expression of immune-related genes, including transcription factors and antimicrobial peptides. Taken these together, we conclude that PE microplastics exert considerable toxic effects on crayfish and are a potential threat to crayfish aquaculture and consumption. This study provides basic toxicological data toward quantifying and illuminating the impact of PE microplastics on freshwater animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China; State Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Pulmonary Fibrosis, Henan Center for Outstanding Overseas Scientists of Pulmonary Fibrosis, College of Life Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China; Henan International Joint Laboratory of Agricultural Microbial Ecology and Technology, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, 453007, China; The Observation and Research Field Station of Taihang Mountain Forest Ecosystems of Henan Province, Xinxiang, 453007, Henan, China.
| | - Zeyu Jin
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China
| | - Manli Shen
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China
| | - Zhongjie Chang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China; State Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Pulmonary Fibrosis, Henan Center for Outstanding Overseas Scientists of Pulmonary Fibrosis, College of Life Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China; Henan International Joint Laboratory of Agricultural Microbial Ecology and Technology, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, 453007, China
| | - Guoying Yu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China; State Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Pulmonary Fibrosis, Henan Center for Outstanding Overseas Scientists of Pulmonary Fibrosis, College of Life Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China
| | - Lan Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China; State Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Regulation, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Pulmonary Fibrosis, Henan Center for Outstanding Overseas Scientists of Pulmonary Fibrosis, College of Life Science, Institute of Biomedical Science, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China
| | - Xiaohua Xia
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, Henan, 453007, China; The Observation and Research Field Station of Taihang Mountain Forest Ecosystems of Henan Province, Xinxiang, 453007, Henan, China.
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Cheaib B, Yang P, Kazlauskaite R, Lindsay E, Heys C, Dwyer T, De Noa M, Schaal P, Sloan W, Ijaz U, Llewellyn M. Genome erosion and evidence for an intracellular niche - exploring the biology of mycoplasmas in Atlantic salmon. AQUACULTURE (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2021; 541:736772. [PMID: 34471330 PMCID: PMC8192413 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.736772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Mycoplasmas are the smallest autonomously self-replicating life form on the planet. Members of this bacterial genus are known to parasitise a wide array of metazoans including vertebrates. Whilst much research has been significant targeted at parasitic mammalian mycoplasmas, very little is known about their role in other vertebrates. In the current study, we aim to explore the biology of mycoplasmas in Atlantic Salmon, a species of major significance for aquaculture, including cellular niche, genome size structure and gene content. Using fluorescent in-situ hybridisation (FISH), mycoplasmas were targeted in epithelial tissues across the digestive tract (stomach, pyloric caecum and midgut) from different development stages (eggs, parr, subadult) of farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), and we present evidence for an intracellular niche for some of the microbes visualised. Via shotgun metagenomic sequencing, a nearly complete, albeit small, genome (~0.57 MB) as assembled from a farmed Atlantic salmon subadult. Phylogenetic analysis of the recovered genome revealed taxonomic proximity to other salmon derived mycoplasmas, as well as to the human pathogen Mycoplasma penetrans (~1.36 Mb). We annotated coding sequences and identified riboflavin pathway encoding genes and sugar transporters, the former potentially consistent with micronutrient provisioning in salmonid development. Our study provides insights into mucosal adherence, the cellular niche and gene catalog of Mycoplasma in the gut ecosystem of the Atlantic salmon, suggesting a high dependency of this minimalist bacterium on its host. Further study is required to explore and functional role of Mycoplasma in the nutrition and development of its salmonid host.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Cheaib
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
- School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
- Corresponding author at: Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom.
| | - P. Yang
- Laboratory of Aquaculture, nutrition and feed, Fisheries College, Ocean University of China, Hongdao Rd, Shinan District, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - R. Kazlauskaite
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - E. Lindsay
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - C. Heys
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - T. Dwyer
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - M. De Noa
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Schaal
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - W. Sloan
- School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - U.Z. Ijaz
- School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
| | - M.S. Llewellyn
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, United Kingdom
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