A focus group approach to understanding food-related emotions with children using words and emojis

The suitability and acceptability of a co-designed prototype psychoeducational activity book for autistic children aged five-eleven years

Background and aims

Evidence suggests that autistic children and young people (CAYP) can benefit from age-appropriate psychoeducation. Co-design is a methodology that iteratively involves end users and stakeholders in producing an intervention which may increase engagement and impact. Few age-appropriate co-designed psychoeducation resources for autistic CAYP exist. Therefore, a paper-based resource was co-designed for autistic CAYP who attend mainstream primary education. The resource aims to educate CAYP about their autism and provide strategies to support them to live well with their autism.

Methods

This paper describes the evaluation of the prototype resource through online workshops with 12 families and input from four specialist clinicians. The suitability and acceptability of the resource was explored, and sketch notes were taken for respondent validity and engagement purposes.

Results

A reflexive thematic analysis identified six themes and two subthemes: (1) content appropriateness (subtheme: strategies and unpredictability); (2) relating to content, (3) feelings and emotions, (4) terminology (subtheme: literal thinking); (5) positivity, and (6) communication aid. Suggested improvements were also identified. Results suggest the resource is suitable and acceptable.

Conclusions

Future intervention development research may consider individual differences of autistic CAYP and the co-design of resources for other age groups of neurodiverse populations.

Children's reaction to sugar reduced dairy desserts in the context of the implementation of nutritional warning labels: An exploratory study

The aim of the present work was to explore children's reaction to sugar reduction in the context of the implementation of nutritional warnings in Uruguay. The study was composed of two sessions involving three evaluation conditions: tasting without package information, package evaluation without tasting, and tasting with package information. A total of 122 children, ages ranging between 6 and 13 years old (47% girls) were involved in the study. In the first session, children's hedonic and emotional response to a regular and a sugar-reduced chocolate dairy dessert (without other sweeteners) was evaluated. In the second session, children first evaluated their expected liking, emotional associations and choice of packages differing in the presence of warning labels for excessive sugar content and cartoon character (2x2 design). Finally, they tasted the selected sample in the presence of the package and evaluated their liking, emotional associations, and intention to re-taste it. Although sugar reduction led to a significant reduction in overall liking, the dessert with 40% sugar reduction showed a mean overall score of 6.5 in a 9-point hedonic scale and was described using positive emoji (, , ). When the desserts were tasted with package information, no significant differences in the expected overall liking of the regular and sugar-reduced dessert were found. Regarding the effect of packaging elements, the presence of a warning label highlighting excessive content of sugar did not have a significant effect on children's choice. Instead, children's choices were defined by the presence of a cartoon character. Results from the present work provide additional evidence about the feasibility of reducing the sugar content and sweetness of dairy products targeted at children and stress the need to regulate the use of cartoon characters on products with an unfavorable nutritional profile. Methodological recommendations for sensory and consumer research with children are also discussed.

Emotional responses to taste and smell stimuli: Self-reports, physiological measures, and a potential role for individual and genetic factors

Taste and olfaction elicit conscious feelings by direct connection with the neural circuits of emotions that affects physiological responses in the body (e.g., heart rate and skin conductance). While sensory attributes are strong determinants of food liking, other factors such as emotional reactions to foods may be better predictors of consumer choices even for products that are equally-liked. Thus, important insights can be gained for understanding the full spectrum of emotional reactions to foods that inform the activities of product developers and marketers, eating psychologist and nutritionists, and policy makers. Today, self-reported questionnaires and physiological measures are the most common tools applied to study variations in emotional perception. The present review discusses these methodological approaches, underlining their different strengths and weaknesses. We also discuss a small, emerging literature suggesting that individual differences and genetic variations in taste and smell perception, like the genetic ability to perceive the bitter compound PROP, may also play a role in emotional reactions to aromas and foods.

Linking Categorical and Dimensional Approaches to Assess Food-Related Emotions

Reflecting the two main prevailing and opposing views on the nature of emotions, emotional responses to food and beverages are typically measured using either (a) a categorical (lexicon-based) approach where users select or rate the terms that best express their food-related feelings or (b) a dimensional approach where they rate perceived food items along the dimensions of valence and arousal. Relating these two approaches is problematic since a response in terms of valence and arousal is not easily expressed in terms of emotions (like happy or disgusted). In this study, we linked the dimensional approach to a categorical approach by establishing mapping between a set of 25 emotion terms (EsSense25) and the valence–arousal space (via the EmojiGrid graphical response tool), using a set of 20 food images. In two ‘matching’ tasks, the participants first imagined how the food shown in a given image would make them feel and then reported either the emotional terms or the combination of valence and arousal that best described their feelings. In two labeling tasks, the participants first imagined experiencing a given emotion term and then they selected either the foods (images) that appeared capable to elicit that feeling or reported the combination of valence and arousal that best reflected that feeling. By combining (1) the mapping between the emotion terms and the food images with (2) the mapping of the food images to the valence–arousal space, we established (3) an indirect (via the images) mapping of the emotion terms to the valence–arousal space. The results show that the mapping between terms and images was reliable and that the linkages have straightforward and meaningful interpretations. The valence and arousal values that were assigned to the emotion terms through indirect mapping to the valence–arousal space were typically less extreme than those that were assigned through direct mapping.

Does the Number of Likes Affect Adolescents' Emotions? The Moderating Role of Social Comparison and Feedback-Seeking on Instagram

Instagram is a social networking site (SNS) that facilitate the social-comparison and feedback-seeking (SCFS) processes, which are particularly relevant during adolescence. Likes represent numeric evaluative feedback and seem to be considered as a form of social reward. In this research we examine some psychosocial factors that could influence the Instagram usage intensity (i.e. SCFS and motivations) and analyze the moderating role of SCFS in the relationship between the number of likes on posts and adolescents' emotions. The sample consisted of 182 adolescent students aged between 13 and 18 years (M = 15.35 years, SD = 1.11). The results show that the social interaction, storage, and gossip motivations mediate the relationship between SCFS and Instagram usage intensity, and that the influence of the number of likes on emotions depended on the degree of SCFS. The discussion of the findings emphasizes that likes have a special social and affective relevance for adolescents with high SCFS, who might become more emotionally susceptible to the feedback they received from their audience on Instagram. This research could be a precedent to future research and the development of intervention programs based on the responsible use of SNSs in an educative context.

Emoji for Food and Beverage Research: Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance Meanings and Appropriateness for Use

Emoji have been argued to have considerable potential for emotion research but are struggling with uptake in part because knowledge about their meaning is lacking. The present research included 24 emoji (14 facial, 10 non-facial) which were characterized using the PAD model (Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance) of human affect by 165 consumers in New Zealand and 861 consumers in the UK. The results from the two countries were remarkably similar and contributed further evidence that emoji are suitable for cross-cultural research. While significant differences between the emoji were established for each of the PAD dimensions, the mean scores differed most on the Pleasure dimension (positive to negative), then on the Arousal dimension (activated to deactivated), and lastly on the Dominance dimension (dominance to submissive). The research also directly measured the perceived appropriateness of the 24 emoji for use with foods and beverages. The emoji face savoring food, clapping hands and party popper were in the top-5 for the highest appropriateness in food and beverage context for both studies, as was a strong negative expression linked to rejection (Study 1: face vomiting; Study 2: nauseated face). On the other hand, zzz and oncoming fist were considered as the least appropriate to be used in a food and beverage context in both studies. Again, the results from the UK and NZ were in good agreement and identified similar groups of emoji as most and least suitable for food-related consumer research.

Probiotic fermented milks: Children's emotional responses using a product-specific emoji list

This study aimed to develop and validate a product-specific emoji list and use this list to analyse children's emotional responses associated with the consumption of probiotic fermented milks prepared with different probiotic strains. Furthermore, the overall liking of the products was studied during a sensory test. Six formulations were studied: Bifidobacterium BB12 (BB), Lactobacillus acidophilus L3 (LA3), Lactobacillus acidophilus LA 05 (LA5), Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis (LL), Lacticaseibacillus casei 01 (LC), and Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (CONV). A total of 132 children (7-14 years old) participated in two study phases: development (n = 32) and validation (n = 100) of the list. Fifteen emoji were selected to be included in the product-specific list, which had a high frequency of citations in the first phase. The formulations with the highest overall liking (LL, BB, LC and CONV) were correlated with positive emoji, while the least-liked formulations (LA3 and LA5) were associated with negative emoji. Furthermore, the utilisation of emoji enabled the differentiation among formulations with similar overall liking. Therefore, this study developed and validated an emoji list to be used in the evaluation of fermented milks by children. The results suggest that the type of probiotic culture impacted the sensory characteristics of fermented milks, supporting the use of Bifidobacterium, L. lactis or L. casei in these products.

The Meaning of Emoji to Describe Food Experiences in Pre-Adolescents

Ongoing research has shown that emoji can be used by children to discriminate food products, but it is unclear if they express emotions and how they are linked to emotional words. Little is known about how children interpret emoji in terms of their emotional meaning in the context of food. This study aimed at investigating the emotional meaning of emoji used to describe food experiences in 9–13-year-old pre-adolescents and to measure related age and gender differences. The meaning of 46 emoji used to describe food experience was explored by: mapping emoji according to similarities and differences in their emotional meaning using the projective mapping technique, and linking emoji with emotion words using a check-all-that-apply (CATA) format. The two tasks gave consistent results and showed that emoji were discriminated along the valence (positive vs. negative) and power (dominant vs. submissive) dimension, and to a lower extent along the arousal dimension (high vs. low activation). In general, negative emoji had more distinct meanings than positive emoji in both studies, but differences in nuances of meaning were found also among positive emoji. Girls and older pre-adolescents (12–13 years old (y.o.)) discriminated positive emoji slightly better than boys and younger pre-adolescents (9–11 y.o.). This suggests that girls and older pre-adolescents may be higher in emotional granularity (the ability to experience and discriminate emotions), particularly of positive emotions. The results of the present work can be used for the development of an emoji-based tool to measure emotions elicited by foods in pre-adolescents.

Biophilia and Biophobia as Emotional Attribution to Nature in Children of 5 Years Old

Introduction

Connectedness to nature is a concept that reflects the emotional relationship between the self and the natural environment, based on the theory of biophilia, the innate predisposition to the natural environment. However, the biophobic component has largely been ignored, despite, given its adaptive functional role, being an essential part of the construct. If there is a phylogenetic component underlying nature connectedness, biophilic, and/or biophobic, there should be evidence of this record from early childhood. The main aim of this study is therefore to describe the emotional attributions identified in 5 years old.

Methodology

Two studies were conducted. In the first, 94 children expressed their concept of nature and made basic emotional attributions to a set of 30 images of natural, using a software designed for the study. In the second, 39 children repeated the procedure and provided explanations for their responses.

Results

The main results show that, in general, children use both positive and negative emotions, which may be related to a three-dimensional model of emotional attributions to nature. The most widely attributed emotion is happiness. However, fear is the second most common attribution. The role of happiness could be explained by a feeling of security and familiarity, while the importance of fear in nature could show an adaptive response of the fear of wild nature in children. This interpretation could be confirmed when analyzing specifically the emotional attributions, classifying the images according to biological and ecosystemic criteria. Thus, for example, more emotional attributions are explained by the “pleasantness” attributed to primary producers and landscapes (e.g., flora), versus attributions of “harm” to the images of secondary and tertiary consumers (e.g., hunters).

Conclusion

These results provide evidence in favor of a didactic procedure to study emotional attributions to images of nature in preschool children. They suggest the incorporation of biophobia as an important adaptive factor in connectedness to nature and a tripartite emotional hypothesis based on the valences of the attributed emotions.

Health beliefs towards kefir correlate with emotion and attitude: A study using an emoji scale in Brazil

Emojis can be used to explore food-evoked emotions in order to provide information that can support the product development and marketing decisions. This study aimed to evaluate consumers' acceptance, purchase intent and emotional responses to milk beverages, with and without kefir added, before and after these consumers were informed about the products' composition (0%, 15%, 30% and 50% m/v) and health claims toward kefir (blind and informed tests, respectively). Emotional responses were assessed by emoji use within a RATA questionnaire in order quantify the perceived significance of the emojis chosen. In the informed test, the consumers' perception of the sensory attributes of the milk beverages, such as their perception of an acid taste in added kefir beverages was shown to have changed. Overall, participants attributed significantly higher acceptance and purchase intent scores to added kefir beverages after they had been informed on its health benefits. In addition, expressions of positive emotion increased when participants were exposed to stimuli related to health benefits of kefir (15%, 30% and 50% m/v), while negative expressions of emotion decreased. The provided information of kefir modified valence and arousal in subjects, and it can be said that to 30% of kefir can be added to yogurt without compromising its sensory acceptability. Thus, health benefits alone cannot improve product acceptance, since participants found a 50% addition of kefir to be unpleasant when tasted during a blind test. Mixed beverages may present a probiotic beverage alternative for consumers who dislike kefir milk, but want to include it in their diets. The implications of liking and purchase intent and how they are linked to emotions are discussed in this paper as well.

A Systematic Review of Emoji: Current Research and Future Perspectives

A growing body of research explores emoji, which are visual symbols in computer mediated communication (CMC). In the 20 years since the first set of emoji was released, research on it has been on the increase, albeit in a variety of directions. We reviewed the extant body of research on emoji and noted the development, usage, function, and application of emoji. In this review article, we provide a systematic review of the extant body of work on emoji, reviewing how they have developed, how they are used differently, what functions they have and what research has been conducted on them in different domains. Furthermore, we summarize directions for future research on this topic.

The EmojiGrid as a Tool to Assess Experienced and Perceived Emotions

In a recent study on food-evoked emotions, we observed that people often misunderstood the currently available affective self-report tools. We, therefore, developed a new intuitive and language-independent self-report instrument called the EmojiGrid: a rectangular response grid labeled with facial icons (emoji) that express different degrees of valence and arousal. We found that participants intuitively and reliably reported their affective appraisal of food by clicking on the EmojiGrid, even without verbal instructions. In this study, we investigated whether the EmojiGrid can also serve as a tool to assess one’s own (experienced) emotions and perceived emotions of others. In the first experiment, participants (N = 90) used the EmojiGrid to report their own emotions, evoked by affective images from a database with corresponding normative ratings (obtained with a 9-point self-assessment mannikin scale). In the second experiment, participants (N = 61) used the EmojiGrid to report the perceived emotional state of persons shown in different affective situations, in pictures from a database with corresponding normative ratings (obtained with a 7-point Likert scale). For both experiments, the affective (valence and arousal) ratings obtained with the EmojiGrid show excellent agreement with the data provided in the literature (intraclass correlations of at least 0.90). Also, the relation between valence and arousal shows the classic U-shape at the group level. Thus, the EmojiGrid appears to be a useful graphical self-report instrument for the assessment of evoked and perceived emotions.

Can front-of-pack nutrition labeling influence children's emotional associations with unhealthy food products? An experiment using emoji

Food products targeted at children are usually marketed using persuasive elements aimed at creating positive hedonic and emotional associations. For this reason, changes in children's emotional associations with unhealthy food products can discourage their consumption. In this context, the aim of the present study was to compare children's emotional associations with food products featuring different front-of-pack (FOP) nutrition labelling schemes. A total of 492 children (6-12 years old) were randomly divided into three groups, each of which evaluated a series of packages featuring different FOP nutrition labelling schemes: guidelines daily amount (GDA), traffic light system (TLS) and nutritional warnings. For each of the six packages and three unpackaged products, children were asked to select all the emoji from a list that described how they would feel eating the product. Data were analyzed using generalized linear models. FOP nutrition labelling significantly influenced the frequency of use five of the 16 emoji. In general, children who evaluated packages with directive and semi-directive schemes used emoji associated with positive emotions less frequently than those who evaluated packages with the GDA system. The effect of FOP nutrition labelling scheme on emotional associations was moderated by age and type of school. The effect of directive and semi-directive FOP nutritional schemes, in special nutritional warnings, tended to be higher for younger children and children from public schools. These results suggest that FOP nutrition labelling may contribute to discouraging consumption of products with high content of nutrients associated with non-communicable diseases among children.

EmojiGrid: A 2D Pictorial Scale for the Assessment of Food Elicited Emotions

Research on food experience is typically challenged by the way questions are worded. We therefore developed the EmojiGrid: a graphical (language-independent) intuitive self-report tool to measure food-related valence and arousal. In a first experiment participants rated the valence and the arousing quality of 60 food images, using either the EmojiGrid or two independent visual analog scales (VAS). The valence ratings obtained with both tools strongly agree. However, the arousal ratings only agree for pleasant food items, but not for unpleasant ones. Furthermore, the results obtained with the EmojiGrid show the typical universal U-shaped relation between the mean valence and arousal that is commonly observed for a wide range of (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory) affective stimuli, while the VAS tool yields a positive linear association between valence and arousal. We hypothesized that this disagreement reflects a lack of proper understanding of the arousal concept in the VAS condition. In a second experiment we attempted to clarify the arousal concept by asking participants to rate the valence and intensity of the taste associated with the perceived food items. After this adjustment the VAS and EmojiGrid yielded similar valence and arousal ratings (both showing the universal U-shaped relation between the valence and arousal). A comparison with the results from the first experiment showed that VAS arousal ratings strongly depended on the actual wording used, while EmojiGrid ratings were not affected by the framing of the associated question. This suggests that the EmojiGrid is largely self-explaining and intuitive. To test this hypothesis, we performed a third experiment in which participants rated food images using the EmojiGrid without an associated question, and we compared the results to those of the first two experiments. The EmojiGrid ratings obtained in all three experiments closely agree. We conclude that the EmojiGrid appears to be a valid and intuitive affective self-report tool that does not rely on written instructions and that can efficiently be used to measure food-related emotions.

EmojiGrid: A 2D pictorial scale for cross-cultural emotion assessment of negatively and positively valenced food

Because of the globalization of world food markets there is a growing need for valid and language independent self-assessment tools to measure food-related emotions. We recently introduced the EmojiGrid as a language-independent, graphical affective self-report tool. The EmojiGrid is a Cartesian grid that is labeled with facial icons (emoji) expressing different degrees of valence and arousal. Users can report their subjective ratings of valence and arousal by marking the location on the area of the grid that corresponds to the emoji that best represent their affective state when perceiving a given food or beverage. In a previous study we found that the EmojiGrid is robust, self-explaining and intuitive: valence and arousal ratings were independent of framing and verbal instructions. This suggests that the EmojiGrid may be a valuable tool for cross-cultural studies. To test this hypothesis, we performed an online experiment in which respondents from Germany (GE), Japan (JP), the Netherlands (NL) and the United Kingdom (UK) rated valence and arousal for 60 different food images (covering a large part of the affective space) using the EmojiGrid. The results show that the nomothetic relation between valence and arousal has the well-known U-shape for all groups. The European groups (GE, NL and UK) closely agree in their overall rating behavior. Compared to the European groups, the Japanese group systematically gave lower mean arousal ratings to low valenced images and lower mean valence ratings to high valenced images. These results agree with known cultural response characteristics. We conclude that the EmojiGrid is potentially a valid and language-independent affective self-report tool for cross-cultural research on food-related emotions. It reliably reproduces the familiar nomothetic U-shaped relation between valence and arousal across cultures, with shape variations reflecting established cultural characteristics.