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Honn KA, Morris MB, Jackson ML, Van Dongen HPA, Gunzelmann G. Effects of Sleep Deprivation on Performance during a Change Signal Task with Adaptive Dynamics. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1062. [PMID: 37508994 PMCID: PMC10377671 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13071062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Augmented cognition, which refers to real-time modifications to a human-system interface to improve performance and includes dynamic task environments with automated adaptations, can serve to protect against performance impairment under challenging work conditions. However, the effectiveness of augmented cognition as a countermeasure for performance impairment due to sleep loss is unknown. Here, in a controlled laboratory study, an adaptive version of a Change Signal task was administered repeatedly to healthy adults randomized to 62 h of total sleep deprivation (TSD) or a rested control condition. In the computerized task, a left- or right-facing arrow was presented to start each trial. In a subset of trials, a second arrow facing the opposite direction was presented after a delay. Subjects were to respond within 1000 ms of the trial start by pressing the arrow key corresponding to the single arrow (Go trials) or to the second arrow when present (Change trials). The Change Signal Delay (CSD)-i.e., the delay between the appearance of the first and second arrows-was shortened following incorrect responses and lengthened following correct responses so that subsequent Change trials became easier or harder, respectively. The task featured two distinct CSD dynamics, which produced relatively stable low and high error rates when subjects were rested (Low and High Error Likelihood trials, respectively). During TSD, the High Error Likelihood trials produced the same, relatively high error rate, but the Low Error Likelihood trials produced a higher error rate than in the rested condition. Thus, sleep loss altered the effectiveness of the adaptive dynamics in the Change Signal task. A principal component analysis revealed that while subjects varied in their performance of the task along a single dominant dimension when rested, a second inter-individual differences dimension emerged during TSD. These findings suggest a need for further investigation of the interaction between augmented cognition approaches and sleep deprivation in order to determine whether and how augmented cognition can be relied upon as a countermeasure to performance impairment in operational settings with sleep loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly A Honn
- Sleep and Performance Research Center & Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Megan B Morris
- Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433, USA
| | - Melinda L Jackson
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Hans P A Van Dongen
- Sleep and Performance Research Center & Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Glenn Gunzelmann
- Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433, USA
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An on-road examination of daytime and evening driving on rural roads: physiological, subjective, eye gaze, and driving performance outcomes. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:418-426. [PMID: 34984650 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02424-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Experiencing sleepiness when driving is associated with increased crash risk. An increasing number of studies have examined on-road driver sleepiness; however, these studies typically assess the effect of sleepiness during the late night or early morning hours when sleep pressure is approaching its greatest. An on-road driving study was performed to assess how a range of physiological and sleepiness measures are impacted when driving during the daytime and evening when moderate sleepiness is experienced. In total, 27 participants (14 women and 13 men) completed a driving session in a rural town lasting approximately 60 minutes, while physiological sleepiness (heart rate variability), subjective sleepiness, eye tracking data, vehicle kinematic data and GPS speed data were recorded. Daytime driving sessions began at 12:00 or 14:00, with the evening sessions beginning at 19:30 or 20:30; only a subset of participants (n = 11) completing the evening sessions (daytime and evening order counterbalanced). The results suggest reductions in the horizontal and vertical scanning ranges occurred during the initial 40 minutes of driving for both daytime and evening sessions, but with evening sessions reductions in scanning ranges occurred across the entire driving session. Moreover, during evening driving there was an increase in physiological and subjective sleepiness levels. The results demonstrate meaningful increases in sleepiness and reductions in eye scanning when driving during both the daytime and particularly in the evening. Thus, drivers need to remain vigilant when driving during the daytime and the evening.
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Cai AWT, Manousakis JE, Lo TYT, Horne JA, Howard ME, Anderson C. I think I'm sleepy, therefore I am - Awareness of sleepiness while driving: A systematic review. Sleep Med Rev 2021; 60:101533. [PMID: 34461582 DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2021.101533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Driver drowsiness contributes to 10-20% of motor vehicle crashes. To reduce crash risk, ideally drivers would be aware of the drowsy state and cease driving. The extent to which drivers can accurately identify sleepiness remains under much debate. We systematically examined whether individuals are aware of sleepiness while driving, and whether this accurately reflects driving impairment, using meta-analyses and narrative review. Within this scope, there is high variability in measures of subjective sleepiness, driving performance and physiologically-derived drowsiness, and statistical analyses. Thirty-four simulated/naturalistic driving studies were reviewed. To summarise, drivers were aware of sleepiness, and this was associated to physiological drowsiness and driving impairment, such that high levels of sleepiness significantly predicted crash events and lane deviations. Subjective sleepiness was more strongly correlated (i) with physiological drowsiness compared to driving outcomes; (ii) under simulated driving conditions compared to naturalistic drives; and (iii) when examined using the Karolinska sleepiness scale (KSS) compared to other measures. Gaps remain in relation to how age, sex, and varying degrees of sleep loss may influence this association. This review provides evidence that drivers are aware of drowsiness while driving, and stopping driving when feeling 'sleepy' may significantly reduce crash risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna W T Cai
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Jessica E Manousakis
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Tiffany Y T Lo
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - James A Horne
- Sleep Research Centre, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
| | - Mark E Howard
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia; Institute for Breathing and Sleep, Austin Health, Heidelberg, 3084, VIC, Australia
| | - Clare Anderson
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.
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Watling CN, Mahmudul Hasan M, Larue GS. Sensitivity and specificity of the driver sleepiness detection methods using physiological signals: A systematic review. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2021; 150:105900. [PMID: 33285449 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2020.105900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Driver sleepiness is a major contributor to road crashes. A system that monitors and warns the driver at a certain, critical level of arousal, could aid in reducing sleep-related crashes. To determine how driver sleepiness detection systems perform, a systematic review of the sensitivity and specificity outcomes was performed. In total, 21 studies were located that met inclusion criteria for the review. The range of sensitivity outcomes was between 39.0-98.8 % and between 73.0-98.9 % for specificity outcomes. There was considerable variation in the outcomes of the studies employing only one physiological measure (mono-signal approach), whereas, a poly-signal approach with multiple physiological signals resulted in more consistency with higher outcomes on both sensitivity and specificity metrics. Only six of the 21 studies had both sensitivity and specificity outcomes above 90.0 %, which included mono- and poly-signal approaches. Moreover, increases in the number of features used in the sleepiness detection system did not result in higher sensitivity and specificity outcomes. Overall, there was considerable variability between the studies reviewed, including measures of ground truth, the features employed and the machine learning approach of the systems. A critical need for progressing any system is a revalidation of the system on a new sample of users. These aspects indicate considerable progress is needed with physiological-based driver sleepiness systems before they are at a sufficient standard to be deployed on-road.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher N Watling
- Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety - Queensland (CARRS-Q), Australia; Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI), Australia.
| | - Md Mahmudul Hasan
- Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety - Queensland (CARRS-Q), Australia; Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI), Australia
| | - Grégoire S Larue
- Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Centre for Accident Research and Road Safety - Queensland (CARRS-Q), Australia; Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation (IHBI), Australia
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Howard ME, Cori JM, Horrey WJ. Vehicle and Highway Adaptations to Compensate for Sleepy Drivers. Sleep Med Clin 2019; 14:479-489. [PMID: 31640876 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsmc.2019.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Sleepiness remains a major contributor to road crashes. Driver monitoring systems identify early signs of sleepiness and alert drivers, using real-time analysis of eyelid movements, EEG activity, and steering control. Other vehicle adaptations warn drivers of lane departures or collision hazards, with higher vehicle automation actively taking over vehicle control to prevent run off the road incidents and institute emergency braking. Similarly, road adaptations warn drivers (rumble strips) or mitigate crash severity (barriers). Infrastructure to encourage drivers to use countermeasures, such as rest stops for napping, is also important. The effectiveness of adaptations varies for different road users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark E Howard
- Institute for Breathing and Sleep, Austin Health, 145 Studley Road, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia; University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Jennifer M Cori
- Institute for Breathing and Sleep, Austin Health, 145 Studley Road, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084, Australia
| | - William J Horrey
- Traffic Research Group, AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety, 607 14th Street Northwest, Suite 201, Washington, DC 20005, USA
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