Extracellular vesicles from amniotic fluid, milk, saliva, and urine expose complexes of tissue factor and activated factor VII

Immersed in a reservoir of potential: amniotic fluid-derived extracellular vesicles

This review aims to encapsulate the current knowledge in extracellular vesicles extracted from amniotic fluid and amniotic fluid derived stem/stromal cells. Amniotic fluid (AF) bathes the developing fetus, providing nutrients and protection from biological and mechanical dangers. In addition to containing a myriad of proteins, immunoglobulins and growth factors, AF is a rich source of extracellular vesicles (EVs). These vesicles originate from cells in the fetoplacental unit. They are biological messengers carrying an active cargo enveloped within the lipid bilayer. EVs in reproduction are known to play key roles in all stages of pregnancy, starting from fertilisation through to parturition. The intriguing biology of AF-derived EVs (AF-EVs) in pregnancy and their untapped potential as biomarkers is currently gaining attention. EV studies in numerous animal and human disease models have raised expectations of their utility as therapeutics. Amniotic fluid stem cell and mesenchymal stromal cell-derived EVs (AFSC-EVs) provide an established supply of laboratory-made EVs. This cell-free mode of therapy is popular as an alternative to stem cell therapy, revealing similar, if not better therapeutic outcomes. Research has demonstrated the successful application of AF-EVs and AFSC-EVs in therapy, harnessing their anti-inflammatory, angiogenic and regenerative properties. This review provides an overview of such studies and discusses concerns in this emerging field of research.

Association of microRNA-21 expression with breast cancer subtypes and its potential as an early biomarker

Breast cancer has become the most diagnosed cancer worldwide in 2020 with high morbidity and mortality rates. The alarming increase in breast cancer incidence has sprung many researchers to focus on developing novel screening tests to identify early breast cancer which will allow clinicians to provide timely and effective treatments. With much evidence supporting the notion that the deregulation of miRNAs (a class of non-coding RNA) greatly contributes to cancer initiation and progression, the promising role of miRNAs as cancer biomarkers is gaining traction in the research world. Among the upregulated miRNAs identified in breast carcinogenesis, miR-21 was shown to be significantly expressed in breast cancer tissues and bodily fluids of breast cancer patients. Therein, this review paper aims to provide an overview of breast cancer, the role and significance of miR-21 in breast cancer pathogenesis, and its potential as a breast cancer biomarker. The paper also discusses the current types of tumor biomarkers and their limitations, the presence of miR-21 in extracellular vesicles and plasma, screening methods available for miRNA detection along with some challenges faced in developing diagnostic miR-21 testing for breast cancer to provide readers with a comprehensive outlook based on using miR-21 in clinical settings.

Unraveling the Multifaceted Roles of Extracellular Vesicles: Insights into Biology, Pharmacology, and Pharmaceutical Applications for Drug Delivery

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles released from various cell types that have emerged as powerful new therapeutic option for a variety of diseases. EVs are involved in the transmission of biological signals between cells and in the regulation of a variety of biological processes, highlighting them as potential novel targets/platforms for therapeutics intervention and/or delivery. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate new aspects of EVs' biogenesis, biodistribution, metabolism, and excretion as well as safety/compatibility of both unmodified and engineered EVs upon administration in different pharmaceutical dosage forms and delivery systems. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of essential physiological and pathological roles of EVs in different organs and organ systems. We provide an overview regarding application of EVs as therapeutic targets, therapeutics, and drug delivery platforms. We also explore various approaches implemented over the years to improve the dosage of specific EV products for different administration routes.

Human Milk Extracellular Vesicles: A Biological System with Clinical Implications

The consumption of human milk by a breastfeeding infant is associated with positive health outcomes, including lower risk of diarrheal disease, respiratory disease, otitis media, and in later life, less risk of chronic disease. These benefits may be mediated by antibodies, glycoproteins, glycolipids, oligosaccharides, and leukocytes. More recently, human milk extracellular vesicles (hMEVs) have been identified. HMEVs contain functional cargos, i.e., miRNAs and proteins, that may transmit information from the mother to promote infant growth and development. Maternal health conditions can influence hMEV composition. This review summarizes hMEV biogenesis and functional contents, reviews the functional evidence of hMEVs in the maternal–infant health relationship, and discusses challenges and opportunities in hMEV research.