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Harrison ND, Steven R, Phillips BL, Hemmi JM, Wayne AF, Mitchell NJ. Identifying the most effective behavioural assays and predator cues for quantifying anti-predator responses in mammals: a systematic review. ENVIRONMENTAL EVIDENCE 2023; 12:5. [PMID: 39294799 PMCID: PMC11378833 DOI: 10.1186/s13750-023-00299-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mammals, globally, are facing population declines. Protecting and breeding threatened populations inside predator-free havens and translocating them back to the wild is commonly viewed as a solution. These approaches can expose predator-naïve animals to predators they have never encountered and as a result, many conservation projects have failed due to the predation of individuals that lacked appropriate anti-predator responses. Hence, robust ways to measure anti-predator responses are urgently needed to help identify naïve populations at risk, to select appropriate animals for translocation, and to monitor managed populations for changes in anti-predator traits. Here, we undertake a systematic review that collates existing behavioural assays of anti-predator responses and identifies assay types and predator cues that provoke the greatest behavioural responses. METHODS We retrieved articles from academic bibliographic databases and grey literature sources (such as government and conservation management reports), using a Boolean search string. Each article was screened against eligibility criteria determined using the PICO (Population-Intervention-Comparator-Outcome) framework. Using data extracted from each article, we mapped all known behavioural assays for quantifying anti-predator responses in mammals and examined the context in which each assay has been implemented (e.g., species tested, predator cue characteristics). Finally, with mixed effects modelling, we determined which of these assays and predator cue types elicit the greatest behavioural responses based on standardised difference in response between treatment and control groups. REVIEW FINDINGS We reviewed 5168 articles, 211 of which were eligible, constituting 1016 studies on 126 mammal species, a quarter of which are threatened by invasive species. We identified six major types of behavioural assays: behavioural focals, capture probability, feeding station, flight initiation distance, giving-up density, and stimulus presentations. Across studies, there were five primary behaviours measured: activity, escape, exploration, foraging, and vigilance. These behaviours yielded similar effect sizes across studies. With regard to study design, however, studies that used natural olfactory cues tended to report larger effect sizes than those that used artificial cues. Effect sizes were larger in studies that analysed sexes individually, rather than combining males and females. Studies that used 'blank' control treatments (the absence of a stimulus) rather than a treatment with a control stimulus had higher effect sizes. Although many studies involved repeat measures of known individuals, only 15.4% of these used their data to calculate measures of individual repeatability. CONCLUSIONS Our review highlights important aspects of experimental design and reporting that should be considered. Where possible, studies of anti-predator behaviour should use appropriate control treatments, analyse males and females separately, and choose organic predator cues. Studies should also look to report the individual repeatability of behavioural traits, and to correctly identify measures of uncertainty (error bars). The review highlights robust methodology, reveals promising techniques on which to focus future assay development, and collates relevant information for conservation managers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha D Harrison
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia.
| | - Rochelle Steven
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
- Environmental and Conservation Sciences, Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
| | - Ben L Phillips
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Jan M Hemmi
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
- The UWA Oceans Institute, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, 6009, Australia
| | - Adrian F Wayne
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
- Biodiversity and Conservation Science, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Manjimup, WA, 6258, Australia
| | - Nicola J Mitchell
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia
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Beckmann S, Avila P, Farrell T. Effect of native and non-native snake scents on foraging activity of native rodents in Florida. J Mammal 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyab124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Rodents use direct and/or indirect cues of predators to assess predation risk. The responses to these cues are well studied with regard to mammalian predators, but less understood with regard to reptilian predators. These responses are of particular importance in tropical and subtropical regions where reptile diversity is high and the likelihood of establishment of invasive reptilian predators also is high. We hypothesized that rodents would respond to direct scent cues of snake predators and that rodents would show greater aversion to scents of native snake predators than non-native snake predators. To assess this, scents of three snake species, two native and one non-native, and a non-snake control odor were distributed in Sherman live traps using a randomized block design. A total of 69 rodents representing four species were captured. Responses varied by species reinforcing that some species utilize indirect cues to assess predation risk, whereas others use direct cues. Moreover, one species (Neotoma floridana) showed a preference for non-native Python scent, indicating a lack of the appropriate anti-predator behavior, suggesting that some native rodents are more at risk of attack from invasive snakes than other native rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Beckmann
- Department of Biology, Stetson University, DeLand, FL, USA
| | - Paloma Avila
- Department of Biology, Stetson University, DeLand, FL, USA
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Royal EJ, Farrell TM. The Effects of Prey Species Presence on Pygmy Rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius) Foraging Behaviors. SOUTHEAST NAT 2021. [DOI: 10.1656/058.020.0211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ethan J. Royal
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701
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Yadok BG, Pech R, Chapman H. Perception of predation risk by African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys sp. nov) is higher in forest-edge microhabitats. Behav Processes 2019; 168:103953. [PMID: 31493493 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.103953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
How rodents perceive predation risk may alter their seed foraging behaviour and therefore potentially influence the recruitment of tree species. In this study we used two methods to investigate the effect of predation risk on habitat use by the African giant pouched rat (Cricetomys sp. nov) in Ngel Nyaki forest reserve, Nigeria. The first method was 'giving up density' (GUD), an index of perceived risk of predation at an artificial food patch, and the second was the 'spool-and-line' approach, whereby unravelling spools attached to rodent bodies are used to trace their tracks. For our GUD experiment, we chose four major sites in the forest; two representative of core habitat and two at the forest edge. Additionally, three characteristic microsites were used in the GUD experiment: dense understory, open understory and near-burrows. We hypothesised that GUDs would be lower on every succeeding observation day as rats learn to use the food patches, higher GUDs would be observed in the forest edges and open microsites, and rats would show preference for the microhabitats with least exposure to potential predators. In support of our first hypothesis, we found that GUDs were highest on the first experimental nights of every session. We also found that GUDs in the forest edges were higher than GUDs in the forest core. Lower GUDs were observed close to the rat burrows and in dense understory microsites, even though these differences were not statistically significant. Tracking of rat movements using the spool-and-line method overall revealed an even use across microhabitats, with a weak preference for those with logs, dense understory or exposed ground. Overall, our results suggest that vegetation density on a microhabitat scale has little or no effect on the perception of predation risk by African giant pouched rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biplang G Yadok
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, PB 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand; Nigerian Montane Forest Project, Yelwa village, Taraba State, Nigeria.
| | - Roger Pech
- Landcare Research, Lincoln, P. O. Box 69040, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Hazel Chapman
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, PB 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand; Nigerian Montane Forest Project, Yelwa village, Taraba State, Nigeria
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McMahon JD, Lashley MA, Brooks CP, Barton BT. Covariance between predation risk and nutritional preferences confounds interpretations of giving-up density experiments. Ecology 2018; 99:1517-1522. [PMID: 29697137 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Giving-up density (GUD) experiments have been a foundational method to evaluate perceived predation risk, but rely on the assumption that food preferences are absolute, so that areas with higher GUDs can be interpreted as having higher risk. However, nutritional preferences are context dependent and can change with risk. We used spiders and grasshoppers to test the hypothesis that covariance in nutritional preferences and risk may confound the interpretation of GUD experiments. We presented grasshoppers with carbohydrate-rich and protein-rich diets, in the presence and absence of spider predators. Predators reduced grasshopper preference for the protein-rich food, but increased their preference for the carbohydrate-rich food. We then measured GUDs with both food types under different levels of risk (spider density, 0-5). As expected, GUDs increased with spider density indicating increasing risk, but only when using protein-rich food. With carbohydrate-rich food, GUD was independent of predation risk. Our results demonstrate that predation risk and nutritional preferences covary and can confound interpretation of GUD experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan D McMahon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, 39762, USA
| | - Marcus A Lashley
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, 39762, USA
| | - Christopher P Brooks
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, 39762, USA
| | - Brandon T Barton
- Department of Biological Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, 39762, USA
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Menezes JF, Mourão GM, Kotler BP. Understory cover increases patch use in rodent Thrichomys fosteri. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2017.1354921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jorge F.S. Menezes
- Embrapa Pantanal, Rua 21 de Setembro 1.880, Bairro Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Caixa postal 109, Corumbá, MS 79320-900, Brazil
- Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University, Midreshet Ben Gurion, 8499000, Israel
| | - Guilherme M. Mourão
- Embrapa Pantanal, Rua 21 de Setembro 1.880, Bairro Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Caixa postal 109, Corumbá, MS 79320-900, Brazil
| | - Burt P. Kotler
- Mitrani Department of Desert Ecology, Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Ben Gurion University, Midreshet Ben Gurion, 8499000, Israel
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