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Paul C, Roy T, Singh K, Maitra M, Das N. Study of growth-improving and sporophore-inducing endobacteria isolated from Pleurotus pulmonarius. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:349. [PMID: 37857876 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-023-03776-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Several Pleurotus species (oyster mushrooms) are commercially cultivated in India owing to the favorable tropical agro-climatic conditions. However, there are only a few studies on the microbiome of mushrooms, especially oyster mushrooms. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of endobacteria on mycelial growth, spawning, sporophore development, and proximate composition of P. pulmonarius. We isolated several bacterial strains from the sporophores of P. pulmonarius and assessed the in vitro production of indole acetic acid, ammonia, and siderophores. The selected bacteria were individually supplemented with spawn, substrate, or both for sporophore production. Three of 130 isolates were selected as mycelial growth-promoting bacteria in both solid and submerged fermentation. These bacterial isolates were identified through Gram staining, biochemical characterization, and 16S rRNA sequencing. Isolate PP showed 99.24% similarity with Priestia paraflexa, whereas isolates PJ1 and PJ2 showed 99.78% and 99.65% similarities, respectively, with Rossellomorea marisflavi. The bacterial supplementation with spawn, substrate, or both, increased the biological efficiency (BE) and nutrient content of the mushrooms. The bacterial supplementation with substrate augmented BE by 64.84%, 13.73%, and 27.13% using PJ2, PP, and PJ1, respectively; under similar conditions of spawn supplementation, BE was increased by 15.24%, 47.30%, 48.10%, respectively. Overall, the supplementation of endobacteria to improve oyster mushroom cultivation may open a new avenue for sustainable agricultural practices in the mushroom industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandana Paul
- Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier's College, Park Street, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700016, India
| | - Tina Roy
- Plant-Microbe Interaction and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Biotechnology, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, 176061, India
| | - Kunal Singh
- Plant-Microbe Interaction and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Division of Biotechnology, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, 176061, India
| | - Madhumita Maitra
- Department of Microbiology, St. Xavier's College, Park Street, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700016, India
| | - Nirmalendu Das
- Department of Botany, Barasat Government College, Barasat, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700124, India.
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2
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Abou Fayssal S, El Sebaaly Z, Sassine YN. Pleurotus ostreatus Grown on Agro-Industrial Residues: Studies on Microbial Contamination and Shelf-Life Prediction under Different Packaging Types and Storage Temperatures. Foods 2023; 12:foods12030524. [PMID: 36766053 PMCID: PMC9914764 DOI: 10.3390/foods12030524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The short shelf-life of mushrooms, due to water loss and microbial spoilage, is the main constraint for commercialization and consumption. The effect of substrate type combined with different temperatures and packaging conditions on the shelf-life of fresh Pleurotus ostreatus is scantily researched. The current study investigated the shelf-life of fresh oyster mushrooms grown on low (0.3, 0.3, 0.17) and high (0.7, 0.7, 0.33) rates of olive pruning residues (OLPR), spent coffee grounds (SCG), and both combined residues (OLPR/SCG) with wheat straw (WS), respectively, at ambient (20 °C) and 4 °C temperatures under no packaging, polyethylene plastic bag packaging (PBP), and polypropylene vacuum bag packaging (VBP). Results showed that at ambient temperature OLPR/SCG mushrooms PBP-bagged had an increased shelf-life by 0.5-1.2 days in comparison with WS ones. The predictive models adopted to optimize mushroom shelf-life at ambient temperature set rates of 0.289 and 0.303 of OLPR and OLPR/SCG, respectively, and PBP as the most suitable conditions (9.18 and 9.14 days, respectively). At 4 °C, OLPR/SCG mushrooms VBP-bagged had a longer shelf-life of 2.6-4.4 days compared to WS ones. Predictive models noted a maximized shelf-life of VBP-bagged mushrooms (26.26 days) when a rate of 0.22 OLPR/SCG is incorporated into the initial substrate. The combination of OLPR and SCG increased the shelf-life of fresh Pleurotus ostreatus by decreasing the total microbial count (TMC) while delaying weight loss and veil opening, and maintaining carbohydrate content, good firmness, and considerable protein, in comparison with WS regardless the storage temperature and packaging type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sami Abou Fayssal
- Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agronomy, University of Forestry, 10 Kliment Ohridski Blvd, 1797 Sofia, Bulgaria
- Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Lebanese University, Beirut 1302, Lebanon
- Correspondence:
| | - Zeina El Sebaaly
- Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Lebanese University, Beirut 1302, Lebanon
| | - Youssef N. Sassine
- Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Lebanese University, Beirut 1302, Lebanon
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3
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Ford SA, Drew GC, King KC. Immune-mediated competition benefits protective microbes over pathogens in a novel host species. Heredity (Edinb) 2022; 129:327-335. [PMID: 36352206 PMCID: PMC9708653 DOI: 10.1038/s41437-022-00569-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbes that protect against infection inhabit hosts across the tree of life. It is unclear whether and how the host immune system may affect the formation of new protective symbioses. We investigated the transcriptomic response of Caenorhabditis elegans following novel interactions with a protective microbe (Enterococcus faecalis) able to defend against infection by pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus. We have previously shown that E. faecalis can directly limit pathogen growth within hosts. In this study, we show that colonisation by protective E. faecalis caused the differential expression of 1,557 genes in pathogen infected hosts, including the upregulation of immune genes such as lysozymes and C-type lectins. The most significantly upregulated host lysozyme gene, lys-7, impacted the competitive abilities of E. faecalis and S. aureus when knocked out. E. faecalis has an increased ability to resist lysozyme activity compared to S. aureus, suggesting that the protective microbe could gain a competitive advantage from this host response. Our finding that protective microbes can benefit from immune-mediated competition after introduction opens up new possibilities for biocontrol design and our understanding of symbiosis evolution. Crosstalk between the host immune response and microbe-mediated protection should favour the continued investment in host immunity and avoid the potentially risky evolution of host dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne A. Ford
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3SZ UK
| | - Georgia C. Drew
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3SZ UK
| | - Kayla C. King
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford, OX1 3SZ UK
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4
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Ordovás-Montañés M, Preston GM, Hoang KL, Rafaluk-Mohr C, King KC. Trade-offs in defence to pathogen species revealed in expanding nematode populations. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1002-1011. [PMID: 35647763 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Many host organisms live in polymicrobial environments and must respond to a diversity of pathogens. The degree to which host defences towards one pathogen species affect susceptibility to others is unclear. We used a panel of Caenorhabditis elegans nematode isolates to test for natural genetic variation in fitness costs of immune upregulation and pathogen damage, as well as for trade-offs in defence against two pathogen species, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We examined the fitness impacts of transient pathogen exposure (pathogen damage and immune upregulation) or exposure to heat-killed culture (immune upregulation only) by measuring host population sizes, which allowed us to simultaneously capture changes in reproductive output, developmental time and survival. We found significant decreases in population sizes for hosts exposed to live versus heat-killed S. aureus and found increased reproductive output after live P. aeruginosa exposure, compared with the corresponding heat-killed challenge. Nematode isolates with relatively higher population sizes after live P. aeruginosa infection produced fewer offspring after live S. aureus challenge. These findings reveal that wild C. elegans genotypes display a trade-off in defences against two distinct pathogen species that are evident in subsequent generations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gail M Preston
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Kim L Hoang
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Charlotte Rafaluk-Mohr
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Institute of Biology, Freie Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kayla C King
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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5
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Suwannarach N, Kumla J, Zhao Y, Kakumyan P. Impact of Cultivation Substrate and Microbial Community on Improving Mushroom Productivity: A Review. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:biology11040569. [PMID: 35453768 PMCID: PMC9027886 DOI: 10.3390/biology11040569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Simple Summary Lignocellulosic material and substrate formulations affect mushroom productivity. The microbial community in cultivation substrates affects the quality of the substrates and the efficiency of mushroom production. The elucidation of the key microbes and their biochemical function can serve as a useful guide in the development of a more effective system for mushroom cultivation. Abstract Lignocellulosic materials commonly serve as base substrates for mushroom production. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin are the major components of lignocellulose materials. The composition of these components depends upon the plant species. Currently, composted and non-composted lignocellulosic materials are used as substrates in mushroom cultivation depending on the mushroom species. Different substrate compositions can directly affect the quality and quantity of mushroom production yields. Consequently, the microbial dynamics and communities of the composting substrates can significantly affect mushroom production. Therefore, changes in both substrate composition and microbial diversity during the cultivation process can impact the production of high-quality substrates and result in a high degree of biological efficiency. A brief review of the current findings on substrate composition and microbial diversity for mushroom cultivation is provided in this paper. We also summarize the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of mushroom cultivation by analyzing the microbial diversity of the composting substrates during mushroom cultivation. The resulting information will serve as a useful guide for future researchers in their attempts to increase mushroom productivity through the selection of suitable substrate compositions and their relation to the microbial community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nakarin Suwannarach
- Research Center of Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (N.S.); (J.K.)
| | - Jaturong Kumla
- Research Center of Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (N.S.); (J.K.)
| | - Yan Zhao
- Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
- Correspondence: (Y.Z.); (P.K.)
| | - Pattana Kakumyan
- Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 201403, China
- School of Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Chiang Rai 57100, Thailand
- Correspondence: (Y.Z.); (P.K.)
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6
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Ordovás‐Montañés M, Preston GM, Drew GC, Rafaluk‐Mohr C, King KC. Reproductive consequences of transient pathogen exposure across host genotypes and generations. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8720. [PMID: 35356553 PMCID: PMC8938310 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
To maximize fitness upon pathogenic infection, host organisms might reallocate energy and resources among life‐history traits, such as reproduction and defense. The fitness costs of infection can result from both immune upregulation and direct pathogen exploitation. The extent to which these costs, separately and together, vary by host genotype and across generations is unknown. We attempted to disentangle these costs by transiently exposing wild isolates and a lab‐domesticated strain of Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes to the pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, using exposure to heat‐killed pathogens to distinguish costs due to immune upregulation and pathogen exploitation. We found that host nematodes exhibit a short‐term delay in offspring production when exposed to live and heat‐killed pathogen, but their lifetime fecundity (total offspring produced) recovered to control levels. We also found genetic variation between host isolates for both cumulative offspring production and magnitude of fitness costs. We further investigated whether there were maternal pathogen exposure costs (or benefits) to offspring and revealed a positive correlation between the magnitude of the pathogen‐induced delay in the parent's first day of reproduction and the cost to offspring population growth. Our findings highlight the capacity for hosts to recover fecundity after transient exposure to a pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Charlotte Rafaluk‐Mohr
- Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
- Institute of Biology Freie Universitat Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Kayla C. King
- Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
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7
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Rafaluk-Mohr C, Gerth M, Sealey JE, Ekroth AKE, Aboobaker AA, Kloock A, King KC. Microbial protection favors parasite tolerance and alters host-parasite coevolutionary dynamics. Curr Biol 2022; 32:1593-1598.e3. [PMID: 35148861 PMCID: PMC9355892 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.01.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Coevolution between hosts and parasites is a major driver of rapid evolutionary change1 and diversification.2,3 However, direct antagonistic interactions between hosts and parasites could be disrupted4 when host microbiota form a line of defense, a phenomenon widespread across animal and plant species.5,6 By suppressing parasite infection, protective microbiota could reduce the need for host-based defenses and favor host support for microbiota colonization,6 raising the possibility that the microbiota can alter host-parasite coevolutionary patterns and processes.7 Here, using an experimental evolution approach, we co-passaged populations of nematode host (Caenorhabditis elegans) and parasites (Staphylococcus aureus) when hosts were colonized (or not) by protective bacteria (Enterococcus faecalis). We found that microbial protection during coevolution resulted in the evolution of host mortality tolerance—higher survival following parasite infection—and in parasites adapting to microbial defenses. Compared to unprotected host-parasite coevolution, the protected treatment was associated with reduced dominance of fluctuating selection dynamics in host populations. No differences in host recombination rate or genetic diversity were detected. Genomic divergence was observed between parasite populations coevolved in protected and unprotected hosts. These findings indicate that protective host microbiota can determine the evolution of host defense strategies and shape host-parasite coevolutionary dynamics. Microbial protection resulted in the evolution of host mortality tolerance Parasites adapted to counter microbial defenses within hosts Protective microbes reduced fluctuating selection dynamics Microbial protection did not impact host genetic diversity or recombination rates
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Gerth
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Headington, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Jordan E Sealey
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
| | - Alice K E Ekroth
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
| | - Aziz A Aboobaker
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
| | - Anke Kloock
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
| | - Kayla C King
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, 11a Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK.
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8
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Khunnamwong P, Savarajara A, Jindamorakot S, Limtong S. Metahyphopichia suwanaadthiae sp. nov., an anamorphic yeast species in the order Saccharomycetales and reassignment of Candida silvanorum to the genus Metahyphopichia. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2022; 72. [DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.005183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Seven yeast strains, representing a single novel anamorphic species, were isolated in Thailand. They consisted of five strains (DMKU-MRY16T, DMKU-SK18, DMKU-SK25, DMKU-SK30 and DMKU-SK32) obtained from five different mushrooms, and two strains (ST-224 and 11-14.2) derived from insect frass and soil, respectively. The pairwise sequence analysis indicated that all seven strains had identical sequences in the D1/D2 domains of the large subunit (LSU) rRNA gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Metahyphopichia silvanorum was the most closely related species, but with 11.9–12.4% nucleotide substitutions in the D1/D2 domains of the LSU rRNA gene and 13.1–13.3% nucleotide substitutions in the ITS region. The phylogenetic analyses based on the concatenated sequences of the ITS region and the D1/D2 domains of the LSU rRNA gene showed that the seven strains form a well-separated subclade in a clade containing M. silvanorum and Metahyphopichia laotica with high bootstrap support. A phylogenetic analysis of a multilocus dataset including the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene, the ITS region, the D1/D2 domains of the LSU rRNA gene, translation elongation factor 1-alpha gene, actin gene and the RNA polymerase II subunit 2 gene, confirmed the presence of the monophyletic clade that also includes M. silvanorum and M. laotica, and strongly supported the phylogenetic isolation of the seven strains from its neighbouring species. Therefore, the seven strains were assigned as a single novel species of the genus Metahyphopichia, according to their phylogenetic relationships. The name Metahyphopichia suwanaadthiae sp. nov. is proposed to accommodate the seven strains. The holotype is DMKU-MRY16T (TBRC 11775T=NBRC 114386T=PYCC 8655T). The MycoBank number of the novel species is MB 841280. In addition, Candida silvanorum is reassigned to the genus Metahyphopichia. The MycoBank number of M. silvanorum comb. nov. is MB 841279.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pannida Khunnamwong
- Biodiversity Center Kasetsart University (BDCKU), Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Ancharida Savarajara
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Sasitorn Jindamorakot
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Savitree Limtong
- Biodiversity Center Kasetsart University (BDCKU), Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Academy of Science, The Royal Society of Thailand, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
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9
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Duvenage S, Rossouw W, Villamizar-Rodríguez G, du Plessis EM, Korsten L. Antibiotic resistance profiles of Staphylococcus spp. from white button mushrooms and handlers. S AFR J SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.17159/sajs.2021/8667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of Staphylococcus spp. has increasingly been reported in food products and poses a public health threat. The aim of this study was to determine the diversity of Staphylococcus spp. and the antibiotic resistance profiles of isolates obtained from freshly harvested and packed ready-to-eat mushrooms (n=432) and handlers’ hands (n=150). A total of 56 Staphylococcus isolates [46.4% (n=26) from hands and 53.6% (n=30) from mushrooms] were recovered belonging to 10 species. Staphylococcus succinus isolates (n=21) were the most prevalent, of which 52.4% came from mushrooms and 47.6% from hands. This was followed by S. equorum isolates [n=12; 91.7% (n=11) from mushrooms and 8.3% (n=1) from hands] and S. saprophyticus [n=9; 66.7% (n=6) from mushrooms and 33.3% (n=3) from hands]. Six isolates that were characterised as multidrug resistant were isolated from hands of handlers. Most (83.9%; n=47) of the 56 isolates were resistant to penicillin [53.2% (n=25) from mushrooms and 46.8% (n=22) from hands] and 14.3% (n=8) were resistant to cephalosporin classes [25% (n=2) from mushrooms and 75% (n=6) from hands], both of which are used to treat staphylococcal infections. Antibiotic resistance genes blaZ [25.0% (n=14) of all isolates of which 71.4% (n=10) were from hands and 28.57% (n=4) from mushrooms], tetL and tetK [both 1.8% (n=1) from hands], mecA [5.4% (n=3) from hands] and ermA [1.8% (n=1) from mushrooms] were detected from the 56 isolates. Only two (25.0%) of the eight methicillin-resistant staphylococci harboured the mecA gene, while only 11 (23%) of the 47 penicillin-resistant isolates harboured the blaZ gene [36.4% (n=4) from mushrooms and 63.6% (n=7) from hands]. Our results demonstrate that food handlers and harvested and packed ready-to-eat mushrooms could be a source of diverse Staphylococcus spp. that exhibit antimicrobial resistance. Clinically relevant S. aureus was only detected on one handler’s hand; however, the isolate was not multidrug resistant. The presence of diverse Staphylococcus spp. on mushrooms and the hands of handlers is a potential public health concern due to their potential to cause opportunistic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacey Duvenage
- DSI–NRF Centre of Excellence in Food Security, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria
| | - Werner Rossouw
- DSI–NRF Centre of Excellence in Food Security, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria
| | - Germán Villamizar-Rodríguez
- DSI–NRF Centre of Excellence in Food Security, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria
| | - Erika M. du Plessis
- DSI–NRF Centre of Excellence in Food Security, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria
| | - Lise Korsten
- DSI–NRF Centre of Excellence in Food Security, Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria
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10
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Fresh Mushroom Preservation Techniques. Foods 2021; 10:foods10092126. [PMID: 34574236 PMCID: PMC8465629 DOI: 10.3390/foods10092126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The production and consumption of fresh mushrooms has experienced a significant increase in recent decades. This trend has been driven mainly by their nutritional value and by the presence of bioactive and nutraceutical components that are associated with health benefits, which has led some to consider them a functional food. Mushrooms represent an attractive food for vegetarian and vegan consumers due to their high contents of high-biological-value proteins and vitamin D. However, due to their high respiratory rate, high water content, and lack of a cuticular structure, mushrooms rapidly lose quality and have a short shelf life after harvest, which limits their commercialization in the fresh state. Several traditional preservation methods are used to maintain their quality and extend their shelf life. This article reviews some preservation methods that are commonly used to preserve fresh mushrooms and promising new preservation techniques, highlighting the use of new packaging systems and regulations aimed at the development of more sustainable packaging.
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11
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Ford SA, King KC. In Vivo Microbial Coevolution Favors Host Protection and Plastic Downregulation of Immunity. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 38:1330-1338. [PMID: 33179739 PMCID: PMC8042738 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msaa292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbiota can protect their hosts from infection. The short timescales in which microbes can evolve presents the possibility that “protective microbes” can take-over from the immune system of longer-lived hosts in the coevolutionary race against pathogens. Here, we found that coevolution between a protective bacterium (Enterococcus faecalis) and a virulent pathogen (Staphylococcus aureus) within an animal population (Caenorhabditis elegans) resulted in more disease suppression than when the protective bacterium adapted to uninfected hosts. At the same time, more protective E. faecalis populations became costlier to harbor and altered the expression of 134 host genes. Many of these genes appear to be related to the mechanism of protection, reactive oxygen species production. Crucially, more protective E. faecalis populations downregulated a key immune gene, , known to be effective against S. aureus infection. These results suggest that a microbial line of defense is favored by microbial coevolution and may cause hosts to plastically divest of their own immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne A Ford
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kayla C King
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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12
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Host genotype and genetic diversity shape the evolution of a novel bacterial infection. THE ISME JOURNAL 2021; 15:2146-2157. [PMID: 33603148 PMCID: PMC8245636 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-021-00911-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Pathogens continue to emerge from increased contact with novel host species. Whilst these hosts can represent distinct environments for pathogens, the impacts of host genetic background on how a pathogen evolves post-emergence are unclear. In a novel interaction, we experimentally evolved a pathogen (Staphylococcus aureus) in populations of wild nematodes (Caenorhabditis elegans) to test whether host genotype and genetic diversity affect pathogen evolution. After ten rounds of selection, we found that pathogen virulence evolved to vary across host genotypes, with differences in host metal ion acquisition detected as a possible driver of increased host exploitation. Diverse host populations selected for the highest levels of pathogen virulence, but infectivity was constrained, unlike in host monocultures. We hypothesise that population heterogeneity might pool together individuals that contribute disproportionately to the spread of infection or to enhanced virulence. The genomes of evolved populations were sequenced, and it was revealed that pathogens selected in distantly-related host genotypes diverged more than those in closely-related host genotypes. S. aureus nevertheless maintained a broad host range. Our study provides unique empirical insight into the evolutionary dynamics that could occur in other novel infections of wildlife and humans.
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13
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Microbiological Safety and Sensory Quality of Cultivated Mushrooms ( Pleurotus eryngii, Pleurotus ostreatus and Lentinula edodes) at Retail Level and Post-Retail Storage. Foods 2021; 10:foods10040816. [PMID: 33918846 PMCID: PMC8070540 DOI: 10.3390/foods10040816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, the microbiological and sensory quality of cultivated mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus and eryngii and Lentinula edodes) available at the Austrian retail level were determined. Aerobic mesophilic bacteria (AMC), Enterobacteriaceae (EB), Pseudomonadaceae (PS), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), yeast, moulds and presumptive Bacillus cereus were enumerated at the day of purchase and after storage at 4 °C for 7 or 12 days. Additionally, the presence of Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes was investigated. Isolates of presumptive spoilage bacteria were confirmed by partial 16S rRNA sequencing. At the day of purchase, 71.2% of the samples were of high microbiological quality and grouped into the low contamination category (AMC < 5.0 log cfu/g), while the sensory quality of 67.1% was categorized as “very good or good”. After storage, the number of samples with high microbial quality was 46.6%, and only 37.0% of the samples scored as “very good or good”. The most abundant species across all mushroom samples were the Pseudomonas fluorescens species complex (58.4%) and the potential mushroom pathogen Ewingella americana (28.3%). All mushroom samples tested negative for Salmonella spp., L. monocytogenes and Bacillus cereus. The microbiological and sensory quality of the analysed mushrooms at the day of purchase and after storage was considered to be good overall. Longer transport distances were found to have a significant influence on the microbiological and sensory quality.
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14
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Thakur RR, Shahi NC, Mangaraj S, Lohani UC, Chand K. Development of an organic coating powder and optimization of process parameters for shelf life enhancement of button mushrooms (
Agaricus bisporus
). J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.15306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rajeev Ranjan Thakur
- Department of Agricultural Processing and Structure ICAR‐Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering Bhopal India
| | - Navin Chandra Shahi
- Department of Post‐Harvest Process and Food Engineering Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Pantnagar India
| | - Shukadev Mangaraj
- Centre of Excellence on Soybean Processing and Utilization ICAR‐Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering Bhopal India
| | - Umesh Chandra Lohani
- Department of Post‐Harvest Process and Food Engineering Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Pantnagar India
| | - Khan Chand
- Department of Post‐Harvest Process and Food Engineering Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology Pantnagar India
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15
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Taparia T, Krijger M, Haynes E, Elphinstone JG, Noble R, van der Wolf J. Molecular characterization of Pseudomonas from Agaricus bisporus caps reveal novel blotch pathogens in Western Europe. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:505. [PMID: 32698767 PMCID: PMC7374911 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-06905-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bacterial blotch is a group of economically important diseases affecting the cultivation of common button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. Despite being studied for more than a century, the identity and nomenclature of blotch-causing Pseudomonas species is still unclear. This study aims to molecularly characterize the phylogenetic and phenotypic diversity of blotch pathogens in Western Europe. Methods In this study, blotched mushrooms were sampled from farms across the Netherlands, United Kingdom and Belgium. Bacteria were isolated from symptomatic cap tissue and tested in pathogenicity assays on fresh caps and in pots. Whole genome sequences of pathogenic and non-pathogenic isolates were used to establish phylogeny via multi-locus sequence alignment (MLSA), average nucleotide identity (ANI) and in-silico DNA:DNA hybridization (DDH) analyses. Results The known pathogens “Pseudomonas gingeri”, P. tolaasii, “P. reactans” and P. costantinii were recovered from blotched mushroom caps. Seven novel pathogens were also identified, namely, P. yamanorum, P. edaphica, P. salomonii and strains that clustered with Pseudomonas sp. NC02 in one genomic species, and three non-pseudomonads, i.e. Serratia liquefaciens, S. proteamaculans and a Pantoea sp. Insights on the pathogenicity and symptom severity of these blotch pathogens were also generated. Conclusion A detailed overview of genetic and regional diversity and the virulence of blotch pathogens in Western Europe, was obtained via the phylogenetic and phenotypic analyses. This information has implications in the study of symptomatic disease expression, development of diagnostic tools and design of localized strategies for disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanvi Taparia
- Biointeractions and Plant Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands. .,Department of Microbial Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Wageningen, Netherlands.
| | - Marjon Krijger
- Biointeractions and Plant Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Edward Haynes
- Department of Plant Protection, Fera Science Limited, York, UK
| | | | - Ralph Noble
- Pershore College, Warwickshire College Group, Worcestershire, UK
| | - Jan van der Wolf
- Biointeractions and Plant Health, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands.
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16
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Isolation and Whole-Genome Sequencing of 12 Mushroom-Associated Bacterial Strains: an Inquiry-Based Laboratory Exercise in a Genomics Course at the Rochester Institute of Technology. Microbiol Resour Announc 2020; 9:9/6/e01457-19. [PMID: 32029553 PMCID: PMC7005118 DOI: 10.1128/mra.01457-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we report the isolation, identification, and whole-genome sequences of 12 bacterial strains associated with four mushroom species. The study was done as an inquiry-based exercise in an undergraduate genomics course (BIOL 340) in the Thomas H. Gosnell School of Life Sciences at the Rochester Institute of Technology. Here, we report the isolation, identification, and whole-genome sequences of 12 bacterial strains associated with four mushroom species. The study was done as an inquiry-based exercise in an undergraduate genomics course (BIOL 340) in the Thomas H. Gosnell School of Life Sciences at the Rochester Institute of Technology.
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17
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Benucci GMN, Longley R, Zhang P, Zhao Q, Bonito G, Yu F. Microbial communities associated with the black morel Morchella sextelata cultivated in greenhouses. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7744. [PMID: 31579614 PMCID: PMC6766373 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Morels (Morchella spp.) are iconic edible mushrooms with a long history of human consumption. Some microbial taxa are hypothesized to be important in triggering the formation of morel primordia and development of fruiting bodies, thus, there is interest in the microbial ecology of these fungi. To identify and compare fungal and prokaryotic communities in soils where Morchella sextelata is cultivated in outdoor greenhouses, ITS and 16S rDNA high throughput amplicon sequencing and microbiome analyses were performed. Pedobacter, Pseudomonas, Stenotrophomonas, and Flavobacterium were found to comprise the core microbiome of M. sextelata ascocarps. These bacterial taxa were also abundant in the soil beneath growing fruiting bodies. A total of 29 bacterial taxa were found to be statistically associated to Morchella fruiting bodies. Bacterial community network analysis revealed high modularity with some 16S rDNA operational taxonomic unit clusters living in specialized fungal niches (e.g., pileus, stipe). Other fungi dominating the soil mycobiome beneath morels included Morchella, Phialophora, and Mortierella. This research informs understanding of microbial indicators and potential facilitators of Morchella ecology and fruiting body production.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reid Longley
- Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Peng Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory for East Asia Biodiversity and Biogeography, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan, China
| | - Qi Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory for East Asia Biodiversity and Biogeography, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan, China
| | - Gregory Bonito
- Plant Soil and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA.,Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Fuqiang Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory for East Asia Biodiversity and Biogeography, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan, China
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18
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Carrasco J, Preston GM. Growing edible mushrooms: a conversation between bacteria and fungi. Environ Microbiol 2019; 22:858-872. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Carrasco
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of Oxford, S Parks Rd Oxford OX1 3RB UK
- Centro Tecnológico de Investigación del Champiñón de La Rioja (CTICH) Autol Spain
| | - Gail M. Preston
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of Oxford, S Parks Rd Oxford OX1 3RB UK
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19
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Yang RH, Bao DP, Guo T, Li Y, Ji GY, Ji KP, Tan Q. Bacterial Profiling and Dynamic Succession Analysis of Phlebopus portentosus Casing Soil Using MiSeq Sequencing. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1927. [PMID: 31507552 PMCID: PMC6716355 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phlebopusportentosus (Berk. and Broome) Boedijin is a popular edible mushroom found in China and Thailand. To date, P. portentosus is the only species in the order Boletales that can be successfully cultivated worldwide. The use of a casing layer or casing soil overlaying the substrate is a crucial step in the production of this mushroom. In this study, bacterial profiling and dynamic succession analyses of casing soil during the cultivation of P. portentosus were performed. One hundred and fifty samples were collected, and MiSeq sequencing of the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was conducted. After performing a decontamination procedure, only 38 samples were retained, including 6 casing soil-originated samples (OS), 6 casing soil samples (FHCS) and 5 upper substrate samples (FHCU) from the period of complete colonization by mycelia; 6 casing soil samples (PCS) and 5 upper substrate samples (PCU) from the primordium period; and 6 casing soil samples (FCS) and 4 upper substrate samples (FCU) from fruit body period. The results revealed that bacterial diversity increased sharply from the hyphal to the primordium stage and then decreased during harvesting. The non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination and analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) analysis suggested that the community composition during different stages was significantly different in casing soil. The most abundant phyla in all of the samples were Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi, Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Saccharibacteria, and Bacteroidetes. Burkholderia was the most abundant genus in all the samples except the OS samples. The relative abundance of Burkholderia in the FHCS samples (55.79%) decreased to 35.14% in the PCS samples and then increased to 45.60% in the FCS samples. The abundances of Acidobacterium, Rhizobium, Acidisphaera, Bradyrhizobium, and Bacillus increased from the FHCS to PCS samples. The linear discriminant analysis (LDA) effect size (LEfSe) suggested that Acidobacterium and Acidisphaera are micromarkers for PCS, whereas Bradyrhizobium, Roseiarcus, and Pseudolabrys were associated with fruit body stages. The network analyses resulted in 23 edges, including 4 negative and 19 positive edges. Extensive mutualistic interactions may occur among casing soil bacteria. Furthermore, these bacteria play important roles in mycelial elongation, primordium formations, and the production of increased yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui-Heng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Edible Fungal Resources and Utilization (South), National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetics and Breeding of Shanghai, National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China
| | - Da-Peng Bao
- Key Laboratory of Edible Fungal Resources and Utilization (South), National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetics and Breeding of Shanghai, National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China
| | - Ting Guo
- Key Laboratory of Edible Fungal Resources and Utilization (South), National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetics and Breeding of Shanghai, National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Li
- Key Laboratory of Edible Fungal Resources and Utilization (South), National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetics and Breeding of Shanghai, National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China
| | - Guang-Yan Ji
- Hongzhen Agricultural Science and Technology Co. Ltd., Jinghong, China
| | - Kai-Ping Ji
- Hongzhen Agricultural Science and Technology Co. Ltd., Jinghong, China
| | - Qi Tan
- Key Laboratory of Edible Fungal Resources and Utilization (South), National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Agricultural Genetics and Breeding of Shanghai, National Engineering Research Center of Edible Fungi, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Edible Fungi, Shanghai, China
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20
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Qiu W, Huang Y, Zhao C, Lin Z, Lin W, Wang Z. Microflora of fresh white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) during cold storage revealed by high-throughput sequencing and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry fingerprinting. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2019; 99:4498-4503. [PMID: 30883770 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.9695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fresh Agaricus bisporus is popular and consumed throughout the world because of its taste, as well as its nutritional and medicinal properties, but it is also prone to microbial growth. There is very limited information about the dynamic changes of microbial communities during storage. The present study aimed to analyze the microbial diversity of button mushroom during cold storage using Illumina HiSeq sequencing. Bacteria isolated from the later storage period were identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and a bioassay of pathogenicity was carried out. RESULTS High-throughput sequencing showed that Pseudomonas was the predominant genus throughout the storage period. Pedobacter and Flavobacterium grew prolifically on the eighth day, while the relative abundance of Oscillospira continued to decrease. Pseudomonas, Ewingella and Chryseobacterium were isolated at the later period of mushroom storage. A pathogenicity bioassay on the cap of mushrooms showing brown blotch indicated an infection by Pseudomonas tolaasii. However, Ewingella americana did not have a pathogenic effect in our study. CONCLUSION Bacterial communities of fresh Agaricus bisporus during cold storage were characterized by high-throughput sequencing. MALDI-TOF MS provides a good analytical procedure, in addition to 16S rRNA gene sequencing. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanwei Qiu
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Ying Huang
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Chao Zhao
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Zhenshan Lin
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Wenxing Lin
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Zejin Wang
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
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21
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Zhang K, Pu YY, Sun DW. Recent advances in quality preservation of postharvest mushrooms ( Agaricus bisporus ): A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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22
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Compost bacteria and fungi that influence growth and development of Agaricus bisporus and other commercial mushrooms. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2018; 102:1639-1650. [PMID: 29362825 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-018-8777-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Mushrooms are an important food crop for many millions of people worldwide. The most important edible mushroom is the button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), an excellent example of sustainable food production which is cultivated on a selective compost produced from recycled agricultural waste products. A diverse population of bacteria and fungi are involved throughout the production of Agaricus. A range of successional taxa convert the wheat straw into compost in the thermophilic composting process. These initially break down readily accessible compounds and release ammonia, and then assimilate cellulose and hemicellulose into compost microbial biomass that forms the primary source of nutrition for the Agaricus mycelium. This key process in composting is performed by a microbial consortium consisting of the thermophilic fungus Mycothermus thermophilus (Scytalidium thermophilum) and a range of thermophilic proteobacteria and actinobacteria, many of which have only recently been identified. Certain bacterial taxa have been shown to promote elongation of the Agaricus hyphae, and bacterial activity is required to induce production of the mushroom fruiting bodies during cropping. Attempts to isolate mushroom growth-promoting bacteria for commercial mushroom production have not yet been successful. Compost bacteria and fungi also cause economically important losses in the cropping process, causing a range of destructive diseases of mushroom hyphae and fruiting bodies. Recent advances in our understanding of the key bacteria and fungi in mushroom compost provide the potential to improve productivity of mushroom compost and to reduce the impact of crop disease.
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