Cardiorespiratory events in infants with gastroesophageal reflux symptoms: Is there any association?

Effects of Nasal Respiratory Support on Laryngeal and Esophageal Reflexes in Preterm Lambs

BACKGROUND

Significant cardiorespiratory events can be triggered in preterm infants as part of laryngeal chemoreflexes (LCRs) and esophageal reflexes (ERs). We previously showed that nasal continuous positive airway pressure (nCPAP) blunted the cardiorespiratory inhibition induced with LCRs. Therefore, we aimed to compare the effects of nCPAP and high-flow nasal cannulas (HFNC) on the cardiorespiratory events induced during LCRs and ERs. The hypothesis is that nCPAP but not HFNC decreases the cardiorespiratory inhibition observed during LCRs and ERs.

METHODS

Eleven preterm lambs were instrumented to record respiration, ECG, oxygenation, and states of alertness. LCRs and ERs were induced during non-rapid eye movement sleep in a random order under these conditions: nCPAP 6 cmH2O, HFNC 7 L/min, high-flow nasal cannulas 7 L/min at a tracheal pressure of 6 cmH2O, and no respiratory support.

RESULTS

nCPAP 6 cmH2O decreased the cardiorespiratory inhibition induced with LCRs, but not with ERs in preterm lambs. This blunting effect was less marked with HFNC 7 L/min, even when the tracheal pressure was maintained at 6 cmH2O.

CONCLUSIONS

nCPAP might be a treatment for cardiorespiratory events related to LCRs in newborns, either in the context of laryngopharyngeal refluxes or swallowing immaturity. Our preclinical results merit to be confirmed through clinical studies.

IMPACT

Laryngeal chemoreflexes can be responsible for significant cardiorespiratory inhibition in newborns, especially preterm. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure at 6 cmH2O significantly decreased this cardiorespiratory inhibition. High-flow nasal cannulas at 7 L/min had a lesser effect than nasal continuous positive airway pressure. Esophageal stimulation was responsible for a smaller cardiorespiratory inhibition, which was not significantly modified by nasal continuous positive airway pressure or high-flow nasal cannulas. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure should be tested for its beneficial effect on cardiorespiratory events related to laryngeal chemoreflexes in preterm newborns.

A Review of Histamine-2 Receptor Antagonist and Proton Pump Inhibitor Therapy for Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease in Neonates and Infants

Proton pump inhibitors (PPI) and histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RA) are commonly used medications in neonates and infants for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), especially in neonatal intensive care units (NICUs). A literature review was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs) and proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) in preterm neonates, term neonates, and infants. A total of 27 studies were included in this review. Antacid medications in studies have consistently shown positive pharmacodynamic effects, including increasing gastric pH, reducing the reflux index, and reducing the number of acidic reflux events. The benefit found in placebo-controlled trials are limited exclusively to these surrogate outcomes. The actual clinically salient outcomes which H2RAs and PPIs are used for, such as reduction in GERD symptoms, especially irritability and improved feed tolerance and weight gain, have consistently shown no clinical benefit. H2RAs and PPIs appear to be extremely well tolerated by the neonatal and infant populations, which would mimic our experience with these medications in our unit. The available data from large, retrospective cohort and case-control studies paint a much more concerning picture regarding the potential for an increased risk in the development of allergies, anaphylactic reactions, necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), other nosocomial infections, and lower respiratory tract infections. Given the risks associated with and lack of clinical effectiveness of both H2RAs and PPIs, use of these medications should be limited to specific clinical situations. Further studies are required to determine whether antacid pharmacologic therapy might benefit certain neonates and infants, such as those with complex medical issues.

Pediatric Laryngopharyngeal Reflux: An Evidence-Based Review

Purpose: Pediatric laryngopharyngeal reflux (P-LPR) is associated with the development of common otolaryngological symptoms and findings. In the present study, the findings about epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic and therapeutic outcomes of pediatric population were reviewed. Methods: A PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Scopus literature search was conducted about evidence-based findings in epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic and therapeutic outcomes of P-LPR. Findings: The prevalence of LPR remains unknown in infant and child populations. The clinical presentation depends on age. Infants with LPR symptoms commonly have both gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and laryngopharyngeal reflux and related digestive, respiratory and ear, nose and throat symptoms. The GERD prevalence appears to decrease over the growth, and the clinical picture is increasingly associated with LPR symptoms and findings without GERD. The prevalence of LPR and proximal acid and nonacid esophageal reflux events may be high in some prevalent otolaryngological conditions (chronic otitis media, laryngolomalacia and apnea). However, the lack of use of hypopharyngeal–esophageal multichannel intraluminal impedance pH monitoring (HEMII-pH) limits the establishment of etiological associations. Proton pump inhibitors are less effective in P-LPR patients compared to GERD populations, which may be related to the high prevalence of weakly or nonacid reflux events. Conclusions: Many gray areas persist in P-LPR and should be not resolved without the establishment of diagnostic criteria (guidelines) based on HEMII-pH. The unavailability of HEMII-pH and the poor acid-suppressive therapeutic response are all issues requiring future investigations. Future controlled studies using HEMII-pH and enzyme measurements in ear, nose or throat fluids may clarify the epidemiology of P-LPR according to age and its association with many otolaryngological conditions.

Belching in children: Prevalence and association with gastroesophageal reflux disease

BACKGROUND

Excessive belching is frequently reported in adult patients with gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) and dyspepsia. Although postprandial gastric belching (GB) is considered a physiological mechanism for gastric venting, supra-gastric belching (SGB) is considered a distinct behavioural disorder. We aimed to define the prevalence of different types of belching and its association with reflux disease in paediatric patients.

METHODS

We retrospectively analysed reflux monitoring studies from 287 patients (median age: 7.0 years; interquartile range 3.0-11.3 years) with a suspicion of GORD. Based on oesophageal acid exposure time (AET) patients were divided in 3 groups: (a) physiological AET, (b) borderline AET and (c) pathological AET. MII-pH studies were manually edited and reflux disease parameters were measured together with quantification of GB and SGB.

KEY RESULTS

Two hundred one children (70.0%) had physiological AET (median: 0.8; interquartile range 0.3-1.6), 52 (18.1%) had borderline AET (median: 4.2; interquartile range 3.4-5.3) and 34 (11.9%) had pathologic AET (median: 10.7; interquartile range 9.1-14.2). Gastric belching was observed in all studies. Gastric belching related reflux was more frequently observed in patients with borderline and pathological AET (p < 0.001). This was more common in older children. SGB were observed in only 7 (2.4%) children (age range: 8-17years) in our population and all patients had Physiological AET. Only 3 (1%) patients had pathological number of SGB (>13/24 h).

CONCLUSIONS AND INFERENCES

Gastric belching related reflux is observed in children with increased AET. SGB is very rare in the paediatric population.

The Role of Combined Multichannel Intraluminal Impedance-pH Monitoring in Infants with Brief, Resolved, Unexplained Events

PURPOSE

Data on the relationship between gastroesophageal reflux (GER) and brief resolved unexplained events (BRUE) in infants is scarce. The aim of this study was to identify the characteristics of combined multichannel intraluminal impedance-pH (MII-pH) monitoring in infants who have experienced BRUE.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective study of infants who were hospitalized on account of BRUE and required 24-hour MII-pH monitoring.

RESULTS

Twenty-one infants (mean age, 4.7 months; range, 0.9-8.9 months; male/female, 11/10) participated in this study. BRUE symptoms associated with GER were found in 10 infants (47.6%). Based on the RI on pH-metry alone, only 7 (33.3%) infants were diagnosed with GERD. More than 100 GER episodes detected by MII were found in 10 (47.6%) infants. Nineteen percent of infants were diagnosed with GERD based on both pH and MII.

CONCLUSION

Both acid and non-acid reflux seem to play a significant role in the pathogenesis of GER-related BRUE in infants.

Effects on Gastroesophageal Reflux of Donkey Milk-Derived Human Milk Fortifier Versus Standard Fortifier in Preterm Newborns: Additional Data from the FortiLat Study

Background: Feeding intolerance is a frequent diagnosis in very preterm infants. As seen in the FortiLat trial, human milk fortification with the new donkey milk-derived human milk fortifier (DF) seems to improve feeding tolerance in these infants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of using the DF compared with bovine milk-derived fortifier (BF) on gastroesophageal reflux (GER) in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants. Methods: Over a total of 156 preterm infants were enrolled into the FortiLat trial (GA <32 weeks and birth weight <1500 g) and randomized into the BF arm or DF arm, and we selected all infants with clinical signs of GER and cardiorespiratory (CR) symptoms. All the infants underwent CR and multichannel intraluminal impedance and pH (MII/pH) monitoring associated with gastric ultrasound to evaluate GER and gastric emptying time. Results: 10 infants were enrolled, and 5 were in the DF arm. At MII/pH, infants enrolled into the DF arm showed a lower GER frequency than BF arm infants (p = 0.036). Half gastric emptying time was similar in DF and BF arm infants (p = 0.744). Conclusion: The use of donkey-derived human milk fortifier reduced the GER frequency and consequently should be recommended in infants with feeding intolerance.

Apnea in preterm neonates: what's the role of gastroesophageal reflux? A systematic review

A causal relationship between gastro-esophageal reflux (GER) and apnea in preterm infants has been frequently hypothesized and is currently debated. The present study aims at reviewing the currently available scientific evidence, in order to clarify the role of GER on the occurrence of apnea and to help improving the clinical management of apneic preterm neonates. We performed a systematic literature search to identify all the clinical studies on preterm neonates that properly assessed the relationship between apnea and GER. Two-hundred and fifty-two papers, including 32 reviews and meta-analysis, were screened. Out of them, only 7 were included in the final analysis according to the selected criteria. Among them, 3 studies reported an increased frequency of apnea after reflux compared to reflux-free period and 4 denied a significant temporal relation. In conclusion, a minority of apneic events occurs soon after GER episodes. Whether this happens by chance or because of a causal relationship is still impossible to define. Based on the available data, empirical treatment with acid inhibitors is not recommended in neonates with apnea unless a proven temporal relation is shown by simultaneous esophageal pH-impedance and polysomnography or cardiorespiratory monitoring and in the absence of a clear clinical benefit.

Multichannel Intraluminal Impedance and pH Monitoring: A Step Towards Pediatric Reference Values

Background/Aims

Combined multichannel intraluminal impedance and pH monitoring (MII/pH) is considered the most accurate test to detect gastroesophageal reflux (GER), however lacking reference values. We aim to determine reference values for the pediatric population and to correlate these values with age and postprandial/fasting period.

Methods

We evaluated MII/pH traces from patients (newborns, infants, and children) admitted to 3 Italian hospitals and who underwent MII/ pH for suspected GER disease. Patients with MII/pH traces that showed significant symptom-reflux associations and/or a pathological reflux index (> 6% for newborns and infants, > 3% for children) were excluded. Traces were analysed in their entirety, and in the postprandial period (first hour after a meal) and the fasting period (the following hours before the next meal) separately.

Results

A total of 195 patients (46 newborns, 83 infants, and 66 children) were included. Age positively correlated with frequency of acidic GER events (r = 0.37, P < 0.05) and negatively associated with weakly acidic GER events (r = 0.46, P < 0.05).

Conclusions

This study describes the distribution of MII/pH values in a pediatric population with normally acidic GER exposure and no significant association between GER events and symptoms. These MII/pH values may be used as reference values in clinical practice for a corrected GER disease diagnosis in the pediatric population.

Etiologies of apnea of infancy

BACKGROUND

To date there are limited data in the literature to guide the initial evaluation for etiologies of apnea in full-term infants born at greater than or equal to 37 weeks conceptional age (apnea of infancy [AOI]). Pediatricians and pediatric pulmonologists are left to pursue a broad, rather than targeted and a stepwise approach to begin diagnostic evaluation.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective chart review of 101 symptomatic full-term infants (age under 12 months) diagnosed with apnea with an inpatient multichannel pneumogram (six channels) or a fully attended overnight pediatric polysomnogram in our outpatient sleep center accredited by American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM), scored using the standards set forth by the AASM. The infant was diagnosed as having AOI if the apnea hypopnea index (AHI) was greater than 1 (AHI is defined as the number of apnea and hypopnea events per hour of sleep). The final diagnosis/etiology was determined based on physician clinical assessment and work up. We then determined the frequency for each diagnosis.

RESULTS

We found that the three most common etiologies were gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) (48/101), upper airway abnormalities/obstruction (37/101), and neurological diseases (19/101). There were significant numbers of infants with multiple etiologies for AOI.

CONCLUSION

Based on the frequencies obtained, pediatric practitioners caring for full-term infants with apnea of unknown etiology are advised to begin with evaluation of more likely causes such as GERD and upper airway abnormalities/obstruction before evaluating for less common causes.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Neonate: Controversies, Current Understanding, and Future Directions

Gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is considered physiologic and is a normal process; whereas, when aerodigestive consequences are associated, it is often interpreted as GER disease (GERD). However, the distinction between them remains a challenge in infants in the NICU. Reflux-type of symptoms are heterogeneous, and often managed with changes in diet, feeding methods, and acid-suppressive therapy; all these empiric therapies lack objectivity; hence, practice variation is universal. We clarify the current controversies, explain the potential role of GERD in causing symptoms and complications, and highlight current advances. The evidence basis for the diagnostic strategies is discussed.

Gastroesophageal Reflux Poses a Potential Risk for Late Complications of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: A Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is the most common respiratory disorder in extremely low birth weight infants. Although most symptoms of BPD improve, some late complications exist, even with regular treatment. Gastroesophageal reflux (GER), also common in extremely premature infants, may be related to many cardiorespiratory symptoms. However, the potential of GER as a risk factor for late complications associated with BPD is still unclear.

RESEARCH QUESTION

The goal of this study was to determine if GER increases the risk of late complications of BPD in infants.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

A multicenter prospective cohort of 131 infants (79 male subjects, 52 female subjects) with BPD was enrolled. The development of late complications was assessed over an 18-month follow-up period. Twenty-four-hour pH-multichannel intraluminal impedance and gastric sodium concentrations were analyzed in all infants at 36 weeks' postmenstrual age and at the last interview. Prevalence and risk factors of late complications of BPD were analyzed by using forward logistic regression.

RESULTS

The prevalence of late complications in BPD infants was 63.79% and included respiratory symptoms (49.14%), vomiting (38.79%), retinopathy of prematurity (25.86%), hypoxic-ischemic injury (3.45%), rehospitalization (26.72%), and sudden death (0.86%). Respiratory diseases constituted the most frequent complication. The prevalence of GER in BPD was 42.24% and included acid GER (18.10%) and duodenogastroesophageal reflux (DGER; 24.14%). Risk factors for respiratory symptoms were gestational age ≤ 30 weeks (OR, 3.213; 95% CI, 1.221-8.460), birth weight < 1,500 g (OR, 2.803; 95% CI, 1.014-7.749), invasive ventilation > 7 days (OR, 4.952; 95% CI, 1.508-16.267), acid GER (OR, 4.630; 95% CI, 1.305-16.420), and DGER (OR, 5.588; 95% CI, 1.770-17.648). Infants with BPD and DGER were more prone to late complications than those with acid GER or no reflux.

INTERPRETATION

The prevalence of late complications is high in infants with BPD. GER (and in particular, DGER) poses a tentative risk for these late complications.

TRIAL REGISTRY

ClinicalTrials.gov; No.: NCT03014453; URL: www.clinicaltrials.gov.

Assessment and Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux in The Newborn

Gastroesophageal reflux is the involuntary retrograde passage of gastric contents into the esophagus with or without regurgitation and is considered a normal physiologic process, occurring daily in greater than one-third of all infants. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is pathologic reflux associated with poor weight gain, irritability, dysphagia and often requires evaluation and treatment. No gold-standard testing for GERD exists. Measurements made by pH probe or multichannel intraesophageal impedance may provide insight into the quantity and character of reflux. Those events do not correlate well with clinical symptoms. Most cases of GERD can be treated conservatively with alterations in the infant's environment and/or feeding pattern. Proton pump inhibitors remain the mainstay for pharmacotherapy of GERD, although these have been associated with increased rates of infection, especially in the preterm population. Neonatal GERD remains a difficult entity to define and manage, and additional studies to aid in the clinical diagnosis and management are needed. [Pediatr Ann. 2020;49(2):e77-e81.].

Pre-discharge Cardiorespiratory Monitoring in Preterm Infants. the CORE Study

Objective: Ensuring cardiorespiratory (CR) stability is essential for a safe discharge. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a new pre-discharge protocol named CORE on the risk of hospital readmission (RHR). Methods: Preterm infants admitted in our NICU between 2015 and 2018 were randomly assigned to CORE (exposed) or to standard (not-exposed) discharge protocol. CORE included 24 h-clinical observation, followed by 24 h-instrumental CR monitoring only for high-risk infants. RHR 12 months after discharge and length of stay represent the primary and secondary outcomes, respectively. Results: Three hundred and twenty three preterm infants were enrolled. Exposed infants had a lower RHR (log-rank p < 0.05). The difference was especially marked 3 months after discharge (9.09 vs. 21.6%; p = 0.004). The hospital length of stay in exposed and not-exposed infants was 39(26-58) and 43(26-68) days, respectively (p = 0.16). Conclusions: The CORE protocol could help neonatologists to define the best timing for discharge reducing RHR without lengthening hospital stay.