Genome wide natural variation of H3K27me3 selectively marks genes predicted to be important for cell differentiation in Phaeodactylum tricornutum

The Expansion and Diversification of Epigenetic Regulatory Networks Underpins Major Transitions in the Evolution of Land Plants

Epigenetic silencing is essential for regulating gene expression and cellular diversity in eukaryotes. While DNA and H3K9 methylation silence transposable elements (TEs), H3K27me3 marks deposited by the Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) silence varying proportions of TEs and genes across different lineages. Despite the major development role epigenetic silencing plays in multicellular eukaryotes, little is known about how epigenetic regulatory networks were shaped over evolutionary time. Here, we analyze epigenomes from diverse species across the green lineage to infer the chronological epigenetic recruitment of genes during land plant evolution. We first reveal the nature of plant heterochromatin in the unicellular chlorophyte microalga Chlorella sorokiniana and identify several genes marked with H3K27me3, highlighting the deep origin of PRC2-regulated genes in the green lineage. By incorporating genomic phylostratigraphy, we show how genes of differing evolutionary age occupy distinct epigenetic states in plants. While young genes tend to be silenced by H3K9 methylation, genes that emerged in land plants are preferentially marked with H3K27me3, some of which form part of a common network of PRC2-repressed genes across distantly related species. Finally, we analyze the potential recruitment of PRC2 to plant H3K27me3 domains and identify conserved DNA-binding sites of ancient transcription factor families known to interact with PRC2. Our findings shed light on the conservation and potential origin of epigenetic regulatory networks in the green lineage, while also providing insight into the evolutionary dynamics and molecular triggers that underlie the adaptation and elaboration of epigenetic regulation, laying the groundwork for its future consideration in other eukaryotic lineages.

Multi-Omics Analysis Reveals Adaptation Strategies of Marine Diatom to Long-Term Ocean Warming: Resource Allocation Trade-Offs and Epigenetic Regulation

High CO2 emissions originating from anthropogenic sources have resulted in ocean warming (OW), posing a severe threat to marine organisms and ecosystems. Recent evidence has shown that marine phytoplankton may acclimate and adapt to long-term OW. Whether and how marine diatoms-a functional group of phytoplankton that contributes to 40% of marine primary production-can adapt to long-term OW remains virtually unknown. The model marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum was subjected to thermal stress (25°C, compared to the Control at 20°C) for 400 days (~400 generations), and physiological, transcriptomic, genetic and epigenetic analyses were performed to reveal the adaptation mechanisms under long-term OW. During the adaptation, regulation of resource allocation (e.g., photosynthesis, nitrogen metabolism, ribosomal synthesis and translation, carbon metabolism and heat shock response) at the genetic and transcriptional levels was linked to accumulated proteins, carbohydrates and particulate organic carbon, reduced lipid content, and enlarged cell size. Integrated analyses of histone modification (H3K27me3) and transcriptome data sets revealed the potential role of transposable elements and epigenetic regulation of transposable elements via histone modification in the adaptation of P. tricornutum to long-term thermal stress. These mechanistic insights may facilitate the modelling and prediction of OW-induced impacts on marine phytoplankton in the future.

DiatOmicBase: a versatile gene-centered platform for mining functional omics data in diatom research

Diatoms are prominent microalgae found in all aquatic environments. Over the last 20 years, thanks to the availability of genomic and genetic resources, diatom species such as Phaeodactylum tricornutum and Thalassiosira pseudonana have emerged as valuable experimental model systems for exploring topics ranging from evolution to cell biology, (eco)physiology, and biotechnology. Since the first genome sequencing projects initiated more than 20 years ago, numerous genome-enabled datasets have been generated, based on RNA-Seq and proteomics experiments, epigenomes, and ecotype variant analysis. Unfortunately, these resources, generated by various laboratories, are often in disparate formats and challenging to access and analyze. Here we present DiatOmicBase, a genome portal gathering comprehensive omics resources from P. tricornutum and T. pseudonana to facilitate the exploration of dispersed public datasets and the design of new experiments based on the prior-art. DiatOmicBase provides gene annotations, transcriptomic profiles and a genome browser with ecotype variants, histone and methylation marks, transposable elements, non-coding RNAs, and read densities from RNA-Seq experiments. We developed a semi-automatically updated transcriptomic module to explore both publicly available RNA-Seq experiments and users' private datasets. Using gene-level expression data, users can perform exploratory data analysis, differential expression, pathway analysis, biclustering, and co-expression network analysis. Users can create heatmaps to visualize pre-computed comparisons for selected gene subsets. Automatic access to other bioinformatic resources and tools for diatom comparative and functional genomics is also provided. Focusing on the resources currently centralized for P. tricornutum, we showcase several examples of how DiatOmicBase strengthens molecular research on diatoms, making these organisms accessible to a broad research community.

Meta-analysis of RNA-Seq datasets allows a better understanding of P. tricornutum cellular biology, a requirement to improve the production of Biologics

The marine diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum is currently used for various industrial applications, including the pharmaceutical industry as a cost-effective cell biofactory to produce Biologics. Recent studies demonstrated that P. tricornutum can produce functional monoclonal antibodies, such application is currently limited by the production yield that hinders industrialization. Therefore, it is necessary to understand and control the cell biology of P. tricornutum to improve the Biologics production yield. Transcriptomic analyses have recently been used by the pharmaceutical industry to improve the production of Biologics in mammalian cells, especially Biologics titer and cell productivity. Hence, in the present work, we performed a meta-analysis of seven publicly available RNA-Seq datasets from different strains of P. tricornutum, for which the culture conditions were chosen as similar as possible. We analyzed the differential expression of genes that are involved in biological processes that are well known to potentially impact the bioproduction and critical quality attributes of Biologics. Therefore, the expression of genes involved in the N-glycan biosynthesis, protein export and secretion, protein quality control and proteasome, as well as those encoding proteases were analyzed and compared. The results pave the way towards optimizing Biologics production in P. tricornutum and highlight that the Pt4, Pt3 Ov and Pt8 strains seem to be the most promising P. tricornutum strains.

H3K27me3 and EZH Are Involved in the Control of the Heat-Stress-Elicited Morphological Changes in Diatoms

Marine water temperatures are increasing due to anthropogenic climate change, constituting a major threat to marine ecosystems. Diatoms are major marine primary producers, and as such, they are subjected to marine heat waves and rising ocean temperatures. Additionally, under low tide, diatoms are regularly exposed to high temperatures. However, physiological and epigenetic responses to long-term exposure to heat stress remain largely unknown in the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. In this study, we investigated changes in cell morphology, photosynthesis, and H3K27me3 abundance (an epigenetic mark consisting of the tri-methylation of lysine 27 on histone H3) after moderate and elevated heat stresses. Mutants impaired in PtEZH-the enzyme depositing H3K27me3-presented reduced growth and moderate changes in their PSII quantum capacities. We observed shape changes for the three morphotypes of P. tricornutum (fusiform, oval, and triradiate) in response to heat stress. These changes were found to be under the control of PtEZH. Additionally, both moderate and elevated heat stresses modulated the expression of genes encoding proteins involved in photosynthesis. Finally, heat stress elicited a reduction of genome-wide H3K27me3 levels in the various morphotypes. Hence, we provided direct evidence of epigenetic control of the H3K27me3 mark in the responses of Phaeodactylum tricornutum to heat stress.

Comparative RNA-Seq of Ten Phaeodactylum tricornutum Accessions: Unravelling Criteria for Robust Strain Selection from a Bioproduction Point of View

The production of biologics in mammalian cells is hindered by some limitations including high production costs, prompting the exploration of other alternative expression systems that are cheaper and sustainable like microalgae. Successful productions of biologics such as monoclonal antibodies have already been demonstrated in the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum; however, limited production yields still remain compared to mammalian cells. Therefore, efforts are needed to make this microalga more competitive as a cell biofactory. Among the seventeen reported accessions of P. tricornutum, ten have been mainly studied so far. Among them, some have already been used to produce high-value-added molecules such as biologics. The use of "omics" is increasingly being described as useful for the improvement of both upstream and downstream steps in bioprocesses using mammalian cells. Therefore, in this context, we performed an RNA-Seq analysis of the ten most used P. tricornutum accessions (Pt1 to Pt10) and deciphered the differential gene expression in pathways that could affect bioproduction of biologics in P. tricornutum. Our results highlighted the benefits of certain accessions such as Pt9 or Pt4 for the production of biologics. Indeed, these accessions seem to be more advantageous. Moreover, these results contribute to a better understanding of the molecular and cellular biology of P. tricornutum.

Conserved functions of chromatin regulators in basal Archaeplastida

Chromatin is a dynamic network that regulates genome organization and gene expression. Different types of chromatin regulators are highly conserved among Archaeplastida, including unicellular algae, while some chromatin genes are only present in land plant genomes. Here, we review recent advances in understanding the function of conserved chromatin factors in basal land plants and algae. We focus on the role of Polycomb-group genes which mediate H3K27me3-based silencing and play a role in balancing gene dosage and regulating haploid-to-diploid transitions by tissue-specific repression of the transcription factors KNOX and BELL in many representatives of the green lineage. Moreover, H3K27me3 predominantly occupies repetitive elements which can lead to their silencing in a unicellular alga and basal land plants, while it covers mostly protein-coding genes in higher land plants. In addition, we discuss the role of nuclear matrix constituent proteins as putative functional lamin analogs that are highly conserved among land plants and might have an ancestral function in stress response regulation. In summary, our review highlights the importance of studying chromatin regulation in a wide range of organisms in the Archaeplastida.

Chromatin profiling identifies putative dual roles for H3K27me3 in regulating transposons and cell type-specific genes in choanoflagellates

Gene expression is tightly controlled during animal development to allow the formation of specialized cell types. Our understanding of how animals evolved this exquisite regulatory control remains elusive, but evidence suggests that changes in chromatin-based mechanisms may have contributed. To investigate this possibility, here we examine chromatin-based gene regulatory features in the closest relatives of animals, choanoflagellates. Using Salpingoeca rosetta as a model system, we examined chromatin accessibility and histone modifications at the genome scale and compared these features to gene expression. We first observed that accessible regions of chromatin are primarily associated with gene promoters and found no evidence of distal gene regulatory elements resembling the enhancers that animals deploy to regulate developmental gene expression. Remarkably, a histone modification deposited by polycomb repressive complex 2, histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3), appeared to function similarly in S. rosetta to its role in animals, because this modification decorated genes with cell type-specific expression. Additionally, H3K27me3 marked transposons, retaining what appears to be an ancestral role in regulating these elements. We further uncovered a putative new bivalent chromatin state at cell type-specific genes that consists of H3K27me3 and histone H3 lysine 4 mono-methylation (H3K4me1). Together, our discoveries support the scenario that gene-associated histone modification states that underpin development emerged before the evolution of animal multicellularity.

Genome-wide assessment of genetic diversity and transcript variations in 17 accessions of the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Diatoms, a prominent group of phytoplankton, have a significant impact on both the oceanic food chain and carbon sequestration, thereby playing a crucial role in regulating the climate. These highly diverse organisms show a wide geographic distribution across various latitudes. In addition to their ecological significance, diatoms represent a vital source of bioactive compounds that are widely used in biotechnology applications. In the present study, we investigated the genetic and transcriptomic diversity of 17 accessions of the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum including those sampled a century ago as well as more recently collected accessions. The analysis of the data reveals a higher genetic diversity and the emergence of novel clades, indicating an increasing diversity within the P. tricornutum population structure, compared to the previous study and a persistent long-term balancing selection of genes in old and newly sampled accessions. However, the study did not establish a clear link between the year of sampling and genetic diversity, thereby, rejecting the hypothesis of loss of heterozygoty in cultured strains. Transcript analysis identified novel transcript including noncoding RNA and other categories of small RNA such as PiwiRNAs. Additionally, transcripts analysis using differential expression as well as Weighted Gene Correlation Network Analysis has provided evidence that the suppression or downregulation of genes cannot be solely attributed to loss-of-function mutations. This implies that other contributing factors, such as epigenetic modifications, may play a crucial role in regulating gene expression. Our study provides novel genetic resources, which are now accessible through the platform PhaeoEpiview (https://PhaeoEpiView.univ-nantes.fr), that offer both ease of use and advanced tools to further investigate microalgae biology and ecology, consequently enriching our current understanding of these organisms.

Dicer-dependent heterochromatic small RNAs in the model diatom species Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Diatoms are eukaryotic microalgae responsible for nearly half of the marine productivity. RNA interference (RNAi) is a mechanism of regulation of gene expression mediated by small RNAs (sRNAs) processed by the endoribonuclease Dicer (DCR). To date, the mechanism and physiological role of RNAi in diatoms are unknown. We mined diatom genomes and transcriptomes for key RNAi effectors and retraced their phylogenetic history. We generated DCR knockout lines in the model diatom species Phaeodactylum tricornutum and analyzed their mRNA and sRNA populations, repression-associated histone marks, and acclimatory response to nitrogen starvation. Diatoms presented a diversification of key RNAi effectors whose distribution across species suggests the presence of distinct RNAi pathways. P. tricornutum DCR was found to process 26-31-nt-long double-stranded sRNAs originating mostly from transposons covered by repression-associated epigenetic marks. In parallel, P. tricornutum DCR was necessary for the maintenance of the repression-associated histone marks H3K9me2/3 and H3K27me3. Finally, PtDCR-KO lines presented a compromised recovery post nitrogen starvation suggesting a role for P. tricornutum DCR in the acclimation to nutrient stress. Our study characterized the molecular function of the single DCR homolog of P. tricornutum suggesting an association between RNAi and heterochromatin maintenance in this model diatom species.

The Polycomb repressive complex 2 deposits H3K27me3 and represses transposable elements in a broad range of eukaryotes

The mobility of transposable elements (TEs) contributes to evolution of genomes. Their uncontrolled activity causes genomic instability; therefore, expression of TEs is silenced by host genomes. TEs are marked with DNA and H3K9 methylation, which are associated with silencing in flowering plants, animals, and fungi. However, in distantly related groups of eukaryotes, TEs are marked by H3K27me3 deposited by the Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2), an epigenetic mark associated with gene silencing in flowering plants and animals. The direct silencing of TEs by PRC2 has so far only been shown in one species of ciliates. To test if PRC2 silences TEs in a broader range of eukaryotes, we generated mutants with reduced PRC2 activity and analyzed the role of PRC2 in extant species along the lineage of Archaeplastida and in the diatom P. tricornutum. In this diatom and the red alga C. merolae, a greater proportion of TEs than genes were repressed by PRC2, whereas a greater proportion of genes than TEs were repressed by PRC2 in bryophytes. In flowering plants, TEs contained potential cis-elements recognized by transcription factors and associated with neighbor genes as transcriptional units repressed by PRC2. Thus, silencing of TEs by PRC2 is observed not only in Archaeplastida but also in diatoms and ciliates, suggesting that PRC2 deposited H3K27me3 to silence TEs in the last common ancestor of eukaryotes. We hypothesize that during the evolution of Archaeplastida, TE fragments marked with H3K27me3 were selected to shape transcriptional regulation, controlling networks of genes regulated by PRC2.

Chromosome-Wide Distribution and Characterization of H3K36me3 and H3K27Ac in the Marine Model Diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Histone methylation and acetylation play a crucial role in response to developmental cues and environmental changes. Previously, we employed mass spectrometry to identify histone modifications such as H3K27ac and H3K36me3 in the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum, which have been shown to be important for transcriptional activation in animal and plant species. To further investigate their evolutionary implications, we utilized chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing (ChIP-Seq) and explored their genome-wide distribution in P. tricornutum. Our study aimed to determine their role in transcriptional regulation of genes and transposable elements (TEs) and their co-occurrence with other histone marks. Our results revealed that H3K27ac and H3K36me3 were predominantly localized in promoters and genic regions indicating a high conservation pattern with studies of the same marks in plants and animals. Furthermore, we report the diversity of genes encoding H3 lysine 36 (H3K36) trimethylation-specific methyltransferase in microalgae leveraging diverse sequencing resources including the Marine Microbial Eukaryote Transcriptome Sequencing Project database (MMETSP). Our study expands the repertoire of epigenetic marks in a model microalga and provides valuable insights into the evolutionary context of epigenetic-mediated gene regulation. These findings shed light on the intricate interplay between histone modifications and gene expression in microalgae, contributing to our understanding of the broader epigenetic landscape in eukaryotic organisms.

PhaeoEpiView: an epigenome browser of the newly assembled genome of the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum

Recent advances in DNA sequencing technologies particularly long-read sequencing, greatly improved genomes assembly. However, this has created discrepancies between published annotations and epigenome tracks, which have not been updated to keep pace with the new assemblies. Here, we used the latest improved telomere-to-telomere assembly of the model pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum to lift over the gene models from Phatr3, a previously annotated reference genome. We used the lifted genes annotation and newly published transposable elements to map the epigenome landscape, namely DNA methylation and post-translational modifications of histones. This provides the community with PhaeoEpiView, a browser that allows the visualization of epigenome data and transcripts on an updated and contiguous reference genome, to better understand the biological significance of the mapped data. We updated previously published histone marks with a more accurate peak calling using mono instead of poly(clonal) antibodies and deeper sequencing. PhaeoEpiView ( https://PhaeoEpiView.univ-nantes.fr ) will be continuously updated with the newly published epigenomic data, making it the largest and richest epigenome browser of any stramenopile. In the upcoming era of molecular environmental studies, where epigenetics plays a significant role, we anticipate that PhaeoEpiView will become a widely used tool.

Differential expression patterns of long noncoding RNAs in a pleiomorphic diatom and relation to hyposalinity

Long non-coding (lnc)RNAs have been shown to have central roles in stress responses, cell identity and developmental processes in multicellular organisms as well as in unicellular fungi. Previous works have shown the occurrence of lncRNAs in diatoms, namely in Phaeodactylum tricornutum, many of which being expressed under specific stress conditions. Interestingly, P. tricornutum is the only known diatom that has a demonstrated morphological plasticity, occurring in three distinct morphotypes: fusiform, triradiate and oval. Although the morphotypes are interchangeable, the fusiform is the dominant one while both the triradiate and the oval forms are less common, the latter often being associated with stress conditions such as low salinity and solid culture media, amongst others. Nonetheless, the molecular basis underpinning morphotype identity in P. tricornutum remains elusive. Using twelve previously published transcriptomic datasets originating from the three morphotypes of P. tricornutum, we sought to investigate the expression patterns of lncRNAs (lincRNAs and NATs) in these distinct morphotypes, using pairwise comparisons, in order to explore the putative involvement of these noncoding molecules in morphotype identity. We found that differentially expressed lncRNAs cluster according to morphotype, indicating that lncRNAs are not randomly expressed, but rather seem to provide a specific (noncoding) transcriptomic signature of the morphotype. We also present evidence to suggest that the major differences in DE genes (both noncoding and coding) between the stress related oval morphotype and the most common fusiform morphotype could be due, to a large extent, to the hyposaline culture conditions rather than to the morphotype itself. However, several lncRNAs associated to each one of the three morphotypes were identified, which could have a potential role in morphotype (or cell) identity in P. tricornutum, similar to what has been found in both animals and plant development.

Phylogenetic profiling resolves early emergence of PRC2 and illuminates its functional core

This study strengthens the support for PRC2 emergence before the diversification of eukaryotes, detects a common presence of E(z) and ESC, indicating a conserved core, identifies diverse VEFS-Box Su(z)12 candidate proteins, and proposes a substrate specificity shift during E(z) evolution.

Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) is involved in maintaining transcriptionally silent chromatin states through methylating lysine 27 of histone H3 by the catalytic subunit enhancer of zeste [E(z)]. Here, we report the diversity of PRC2 core subunit proteins in different eukaryotic supergroups with emphasis on the early-diverged lineages and explore the molecular evolution of PRC2 subunits by phylogenetics. For the first time, we identify the putative ortholog of E(z) in Discoba, a lineage hypothetically proximal to the eukaryotic root, strongly supporting emergence of PRC2 before the diversification of eukaryotes. Analyzing 283 species, we robustly detect a common presence of E(z) and ESC, indicating a conserved functional core. Full-length Su(z)12 orthologs were identified in some lineages and species only, indicating, nonexclusively, high divergence of VEFS-Box–containing Su(z)12-like proteins, functional convergence of sequence-unrelated proteins, or Su(z)12 dispensability. Our results trace E(z) evolution within the SET-domain protein family, proposing a substrate specificity shift during E(z) evolution based on SET-domain and H3 histone interaction prediction.

ALGAEFUN with MARACAS, microALGAE FUNctional enrichment tool for MicroAlgae RnA-seq and Chip-seq AnalysiS

Background

Microalgae are emerging as promising sustainable sources for biofuels, biostimulants in agriculture, soil bioremediation, feed and human nutrients. Nonetheless, the molecular mechanisms underpinning microalgae physiology and the biosynthesis of compounds of biotechnological interest are largely uncharacterized. This hinders the development of microalgae full potential as cell-factories. The recent application of omics technologies into microalgae research aims at unraveling these systems. Nevertheless, the lack of specific tools for analysing omics raw data generated from microalgae to provide biological meaningful information are hampering the impact of these technologies. The purpose of ALGAEFUN with MARACAS consists in providing researchers in microalgae with an enabling tool that will allow them to exploit transcriptomic and cistromic high-throughput sequencing data.

Results

ALGAEFUN with MARACAS consists of two different tools. First, MARACAS (MicroAlgae RnA-seq and Chip-seq AnalysiS) implements a fully automatic computational pipeline receiving as input RNA-seq (RNA sequencing) or ChIP-seq (chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing) raw data from microalgae studies. MARACAS generates sets of differentially expressed genes or lists of genomic loci for RNA-seq and ChIP-seq analysis respectively. Second, ALGAEFUN (microALGAE FUNctional enrichment tool) is a web-based application where gene sets generated from RNA-seq analysis as well as lists of genomic loci from ChIP-seq analysis can be used as input. On the one hand, it can be used to perform Gene Ontology and biological pathways enrichment analysis over gene sets. On the other hand, using the results of ChIP-seq data analysis, it identifies a set of potential target genes and analyses the distribution of the loci over gene features. Graphical representation of the results as well as tables with gene annotations are generated and can be downloaded for further analysis.

Conclusions

ALGAEFUN with MARACAS provides an integrated environment for the microalgae research community that facilitates the process of obtaining relevant biological information from raw RNA-seq and ChIP-seq data. These applications are designed to assist researchers in the interpretation of gene lists and genomic loci based on functional enrichment analysis. ALGAEFUN with MARACAS is publicly available on https://greennetwork.us.es/AlgaeFUN/.

Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 in Eukaryotes-An Evolutionary Perspective

Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) represents a group of evolutionarily conserved multi-subunit complexes that repress gene transcription by introducing trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone 3 (H3K27me3). PRC2 activity is of key importance for cell identity specification and developmental phase transitions in animals and plants. The composition, biochemistry, and developmental function of PRC2 in animal and flowering plant model species are relatively well described. Recent evidence demonstrates the presence of PRC2 complexes in various eukaryotic supergroups, suggesting conservation of the complex and its function. Here, we provide an overview of the current understanding of PRC2-mediated repression in different representatives of eukaryotic supergroups with a focus on the green lineage. By comparison of PRC2 in different eukaryotes, we highlight the possible common and diverged features suggesting evolutionary implications and outline emerging questions and directions for future research of polycomb repression and its evolution.

The epigenetic origin of life history transitions in plants and algae

Plants and algae have a complex life history that transitions between distinct life forms called the sporophyte and the gametophyte. This phenomenon-called the alternation of generations-has fascinated botanists and phycologists for over 170 years. Despite the mesmerizing array of life histories described in plants and algae, we are only now beginning to learn about the molecular mechanisms controlling them and how they evolved. Epigenetic silencing plays an essential role in regulating gene expression during multicellular development in eukaryotes, raising questions about its impact on the life history strategy of plants and algae. Here, we trace the origin and function of epigenetic mechanisms across the plant kingdom, from unicellular green algae through to angiosperms, and attempt to reconstruct the evolutionary steps that influenced life history transitions during plant evolution. Central to this evolutionary scenario is the adaption of epigenetic silencing from a mechanism of genome defense to the repression and control of alternating generations. We extend our discussion beyond the green lineage and highlight the peculiar case of the brown algae. Unlike their unicellular diatom relatives, brown algae lack epigenetic silencing pathways common to animals and plants yet display complex life histories, hinting at the emergence of novel life history controls during stramenopile evolution.