Sodium in the food supply: challenges and opportunities

Sensory characterization of yellow pea and ground chicken hybrid meat burgers using static and dynamic methodologies

To reduce animal protein consumption, new food products need to be created. Furthermore, there is a growing number of consumers who consciously act to reduce their meat consumption. Hybrid meat products (HMP) are food items that combine both plant and animal proteins. The objective of this study was to create a hybrid meat burger (HMB) using yellow pea and chicken and to evaluate the sensory properties of the new product using static (check-all-that-apply [CATA]) and dynamic (temporal check-all-that-apply [TCATA]) methods. Yellow pea flour was added to a chicken burger at 0% (control), 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%. A sensory trial asked participants (n = 69) to evaluate the HMBs using hedonic scales and CATA. A second sensory trial asked experienced panelists (n = 14) to evaluate the items using TCATA. The addition of the yellow pea flour decreased the liking of the burgers, except for the 10% formulation. The burgers made with higher amounts of yellow pea were associated with off-flavors (beany and nutty; significantly different from the control) during both CATA and TCATA tasks and detracted from consumers' liking. Juicy, moist, meaty, salty, and soft attributes increased the consumers' liking. The study identified that the addition of yellow pea to chicken burgers is only acceptable to consumers in small quantities (10%). In addition, the yellow peas contributed off-flavors and a dry texture that was disliked by the consumers. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The environmental impacts of livestock production have created a need to incorporate more plant-based proteins into consumers' diets to increase sustainability. The market for meat alternatives, including hybrid meat products, is expanding; however, current products do not always meet consumers' expectations. Chicken is the fastest-growing meat sector in North America, and therefore this study's objective was to determine the sensory properties of a burger made from chicken and pulses (yellow pea). It was found that if 10% of chicken in a burger was substituted with yellow pea, then the sensory properties and consumer liking were not significantly affected.

Strategic Sodium Reduction Initiative Reduces Sodium in Meals Served at Older Adult Congregate Meal Program Sites

Excessive sodium consumption is a public health issue and congregate meal programs provide a unique opportunity to reduce sodium served to a large, at-risk population. A Sodium Reduction Initiative (SRI) was implemented in a congregate meal program that serves over 3,000 older adults. Nutrient analyses conducted at baseline and post-intervention were used to calculate average sodium reduction and the number of low sodium foods; targeted foods were categorized by strategy. Customer satisfaction surveys were collected at baseline and 3- and 6-months post-intervention. Kruskal Wallis and analysis of variance were used to compare sodium reduction differences. Chi-square analysis determined associations among strategies. The SRI impacted 55 foods, low sodium foods increased by 22%, and the average sodium per menu cycle was reduced by 21%. Replacement with a lower sodium food was the most frequently used strategy and had the largest sodium reduction. Sauces and main entrees were most frequently impacted, and thirteen ingredients accounted for 75% of all reduced-sodium foods. Over 50% of the 1,424 survey respondents consumed the reduced-sodium foods and food satisfaction remained stable from baseline to post-intervention. Congregate meals programs that target commonly used foods and key ingredients can significantly reduce sodium served to older adults.

Effect of Varying Inclusion Levels of Fossil Shell Flour on Growth Performance, Water Intake, Digestibility and N Retention in Dohne-Merino Wethers

Simple Summary

With the recent negative public opinion on chemical-based feed additive in many nations of the world (for the health implication and environmentally hazard it posed), naturally occurring feed additive are urgently needed to replace and support the sustainable development in livestock production. The potential of Fossil shell flour as performance enhancer was investigated in this study. The major finding was that fossil shell flour increased growth performance, apparent nutrient digestibility, N retention and make minimum use of water in Dohne-Merino wethers. Hence it could be an alternative to chemical-based feed additive in livestock production.

Abstract

This study was carried out to determine the effect of varying levels of Fossil shell flour (FSF) supplementation on growth performance, water intake, digestibility and N retention in Dohne Merino sheep pursuant to establishing the optimum inclusion rate of this supplement in Dohne Merino diets. Sixteen Dohne-Merino wethers (18 ± 1.5 kg body weight) were used in a complete randomized design with four animals per treatment. Sheep were fed a basal diet without FSF addition (control, T1), or with the addition of FSF (2%, T2), (4%, T3) or (6%, T4) of the diet for 105 days. Treatment 3 (4% FSF) has the highest values of dry matter intake, total weight gain, N retention and for most of the apparent digestibility nutrients (CP, EE and Ash) compared to treatment T1, T2 and T4(p < 0.05). The urinary and fecal N excretion also significantly decreased in the FSF treated diets compared to the control (p < 0.05). Water intake values were highest in control and were significantly (p < 0.05) different from those in treatments 2 and 4, but not to treatment 3. It is concluded that 4% inclusion rate of FSF will give the best improvement on growth performance, diet digestibility and N retention of Dohne-Merino sheep. Also, the addition of FSF in the diets of sheep is a safe natural additive that can help to reduce environmental pollution by reducing fecal and urinary N excretion.

Acculturation of immigrant diet, basic taste responses and sodium appetite

In young new Ethiopian immigrants (EI, about 0·5 years since immigration; n 20), veteran Ethiopian immigrant students (ES, about 13 years since immigration; n 30) and native Israeli students (NS; n 82), dietary macronutrients and electrolytes, and responses to basic tastes were compared in a cross-sectional design. From EI, to ES, to NS, dietary energy, protein, fat, and Na⁺ increase, whereas carbohydrates, K⁺ and Ca²⁺ do not differ. Corrected for energy intake, only Na⁺ increases. EI consume less dietary Na⁺, like foods with less Na⁺ content, salt their food less, yet show a greater hedonic response to salt taste. In contrast, preference for sweet does not differ. Taste psychophysics, 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) responses and lingual fungiform papillae density differ by group (and sex), but do not relate to dietary intake. Together, these changes could reflect dietary acculturation, increasing overall intake, Na⁺ in particular, accompanied by decreasing taste sensitivity, and changes in sensory perception and preference in these Ethiopian immigrants. The fact that immigrants find salt more hedonic, yet eat less of it, could suggest increased sensitivity to its taste, and might suggest restoring sensitivity to reduce Na⁺ intake for all. Similar alterations in taste sensory responses might be obtained in other forms of dietary flux. Understanding dietary acculturation can focus efforts (e.g. on Na⁺), to anticipate the disease burden of diets of affluence among immigrants. Yet, these immigrants’ nutrition is healthier in its low fat and Na⁺, suggesting that nutritional advice should focus on preservation, as well as prevention. Our study adds Ethiopian nutritional acculturation to that of the varied immigrant groups around the world.

Recalled taste intensity, liking and habitual intake of commonly consumed foods

Taste intensity and quality affect the liking of foods, and determine food choice and consumption. We aimed to 1) classify commonly consumed foods based on recalled taste intensity for bitter, sweet, salty, sour, and fatty taste, and 2) examine the associations among recalled taste intensity, liking, and habitual consumption of foods. In Stage 1, 62 Canadian adults recalled the taste intensity of 120 common foods. Their responses were used to identify sets of 20-25 foods classified as strongly bitter, sweet, salty, sour or fatty-tasting. In Stage 2, 287 U.S. adults validated these selections, and let us reduce them to sets of 11-13 foods. Ratings of recalled taste intensity were consistent across age, sex and overweight status, with the exceptions that sweet, bitter and fatty-tasting foods were rated as more intense by women than by men. The recalled intensity ratings of the most bitter, salty and fatty foods (but not sour or sweet foods) were inversely correlated with liking and intake. The negative correlation between fatty taste intensity and fatty food liking was stronger among normal weight than among overweight participants. Our results suggest that the recalled taste intensity of foods is associated with food liking and habitual consumption, but the strength of these relationships varies by taste. The food lists based on taste intensity ratings provide a resource to efficiently calculate indices of exposure to the different tastes in future studies.

The perception of low-salt bread among preschool children and the role of educational personnel in creating a positive attitude towards reformulated food

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to identify the possibility of unnoticed reduction in salt content of bread as a basic food in the diet of preschool children. The response of children to less salty bread and the role of teachers and teacher assistants in the introduction of novelties into children’s nutrition ware studied.

Methods

Using hedonic sensory evaluation in the case of bread, the perception of salty taste and responses of preschool children to salt reduction were observed. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data analysis obtained from the case study group, composed of 22 preschool children and 66 teachers and teacher assistants, was studied.

Results

The results show that a 30% salt reduction was not registered by the children, while a 50% reduction of the salt content, compared to the original recipe, though noted, was not disruptive. The perception of taste and development of good eating habits at an early age could be influenced by teachers and teacher assistants’ verbal and non-verbal communication.

Conclusion

Salt reduction does not significantly affect the rating of satisfaction with the tested product. Educational personnel must be aware of their decisive influence on children’s perception of new and less salty products. Such an approach could represent a basis for creating children’s eating habits, which will be of particular importance later in their lives. The findings may possibly result in an update of the national nutrition policy.

The Validity of US Nutritional Surveillance: USDA's Loss-Adjusted Food Availability Data Series 1971-2010

The purpose of this study was to examine the validity of the 1971-2010 United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) loss-adjusted food availability (LAFA) per capita caloric consumption estimates. Estimated total daily energy expenditure (TEE) was calculated for nationally representative samples of US adults, 20-74 years, using the Institute of Medicine's predictive equations with "low-active" (TEE L-ACT) and "sedentary" (TEE SED) physical activity values. TEE estimates were subtracted from LAFA estimates to create disparity values (kcal/d). A validated mathematical model was applied to calculate expected weight change in reference individuals resulting from the disparity. From 1971-2010, the disparity between LAFA and TEE L-ACT varied by 394kcal/d-(P < 0.001), from -205kcal/d (95% CI: -214, -196) to +189kcal/d (95% CI: 168, 209). The disparity between LAFA and TEE SED varied by 412kcal/d (P < 0.001), from -84kcal/d (95% CI: -93, -76) to +328kcal/d (95% CI: 309, 348). Our model suggests that if LAFA estimates were actually consumed, reference individuals would have lost ~1-4kg/y from 1971-1980 (an accumulated loss of ~12 to ~36kg), and gained ~3-7kg/y from 1988-2010 (an accumulated gain of ~42 to ~98kg). These estimates differed from the actual measured increments of 10kg and 9kg in reference men and women, respectively, over the 39-year period. The USDA LAFA data provided inconsistent, divergent estimates of per capita caloric consumption over its 39-year history. The large, variable misestimation suggests that the USDA LAFA per capita caloric intake estimates lack validity and should not be used to inform public policy.

Modified Nutritional Recommendations to Improve Dietary Patterns and Outcomes in Hemodialysis Patients

The renal diet has traditionally been regarded as one of the most complex medical nutrition therapies to teach, understand, and implement. Specifically, patients are instructed to limit fruits, vegetables, nuts, legumes, dairy, and whole grains because of both phosphorus and potassium concerns. Furthermore, hemodialysis patients are often encouraged to decrease fluid intake to control interdialytic weight gain. These restrictions can result in frustration, lack of autonomy, and the perception that there is nothing left to eat. It is possible that the traditional renal diet may be liberalized, with a focus on whole foods low in sodium and phosphorus additives, to afford patients greater choices and ultimately improved outcomes. Therefore, the objective of this review is to concisely assess the evidence in support of a renal diet focused primarily on reducing the intake of sodium and inorganic phosphorus. Finally, the limited evidence for restrictions on dietary potassium intake is summarized.

Applying the Triangle Taste Test to Assess Differences between Low Sodium Salts and Common Salt: Evidence from Peru

Background

In resourced-constrained settings, daily cooking practices are still the norm. Replacing sodium in regular salt to produce potassium-enriched salts are potential alternative routes to reduce sodium intake, paired with the benefit associated with potassium intake. This change would likely have effects on palatability and taste of prepared foods, yet a threshold to discriminate sensorial changes can be determined. The main goal of this study was to assess if the use of potassium-enriched salt substitutes lead to perceived differences in taste utilizing a sensory discrimination test.

Methods and Results

A triangle taste test was conducted and participants were offered samples of cooked rice prepared with different salts. The only ingredient that differed in the preparation was the salt used: 100%NaCl (regular salt) and salts where sodium was replaced by 50%, 33% or 25% KCl (potassium-enriched salt). Comparisons were carried out according to the minimum number of correct judgments. A total of 156 subjects, 49% males, mean age 41.0 years (SD±15.5) years, participated in the study. Samples using 25% potassium-enrichment were indistinguishable in terms of taste from regular salt, whereas samples with 33% and 50% potassium-enrichment were distinguishable. Results were consistent when stratified by sex and age. Less than 10% of participants attributed the differences to bitterness or metallic flavor.

Conclusions

The 25% potassium-enriched salt is indistinguishable from regular salt. These findings suggest a potential to achieve sodium intake reduction strategies in cooking practices by substituting regular salt with potassium-enriched salt without affecting palatability.

Shifting human salty taste preference: Potential opportunities and challenges in reducing dietary salt intake of Americans

Dietary salt reduction of Americans has been a focus of public health initiatives for more than 40 years primarily due to the association between high salt intake and development of hypertension. Despite past efforts, salt intake of Americans has remained at levels well above dietary recommendations, likely due in part to the hedonic appeal of salty taste. As such, in 2010 the Institute of Medicine suggested a strategy of gradual salt reduction of processed foods, the primary source of Americans' dietary salt intake, via an approach intended to minimize impact on consumer acceptability of lower-sodium foods. This brief review discusses the ontogeny and development of human salt taste preference, the role of experience in shifting salt preference, and sources of dietary salt. Our current understanding of shifting human salt taste preference is discussed within the context of potential opportunities for success in reducing dietary salt, and gaps in the research that both limit our ability to predict effectiveness of gradual salt reduction and that need be addressed before a strategy to shift salt preference can realistically be implemented.

Salt as a public health challenge in continental European convenience and ready meals

OBJECTIVE

To assess the salt content of continental European convenience and ready meals.

DESIGN

A multistage study in which, after laboratory analysis of the products' salt contents (n 32), new salt-reduced meals were developed through food reformulation. Additionally, a comprehensive survey of convenience meals from the Austrian market (n 572) was conducted to evaluate the salt contents of a wider product range.

SETTING

Six continental European countries participated.

SUBJECTS

No subjects enrolled.

RESULTS

The salt contents of continental European convenience and ready meals mostly exceeded 1·8 g/100 g, which is 30 % of the targeted daily intake level; some contained even more than the recommended daily intake of 6 g. The highest salt contents were found in pizzas and pasta dishes, the lowest ones in sweet meals. Large variations in salt levels were found not only between and within meal type categories, but also between similar meals from different producers. In addition, our approach to develop new salt-reduced meals showed that a stepwise reduction of the ready meals' salt contents is possible without compromising the sensory quality.

CONCLUSIONS

To address the problem of hypertension and increased risk for CVD through high salt intake, a reduction of the salt levels in continental European convenience and ready meals is urgently needed, since they are providing a major part of the daily salt intake. Successful national-wide salt reduction strategies in the UK or Finland have already demonstrated the public health impact of this setting.

Prevalence of iodine inadequacy in Switzerland assessed by the estimated average requirement cut-point method in relation to the impact of iodized salt

OBJECTIVE

To assess the iodine status of Swiss population groups and to evaluate the influence of iodized salt as a vector for iodine fortification.

DESIGN

The relationship between 24 h urinary iodine and Na excretions was assessed in the general population after correcting for confounders. Single-day intakes were estimated assuming that 92 % of dietary iodine was excreted in 24 h urine. Usual intake distributions were derived for male and female population groups after adjustment for within-subject variability. The estimated average requirement (EAR) cut-point method was applied as guidance to assess the inadequacy of the iodine supply.

SETTING

Public health strategies to reduce the dietary salt intake in the general population may affect its iodine supply.

SUBJECTS

The study population (1481 volunteers, aged ≥15 years) was randomly selected from three different linguistic regions of Switzerland.

RESULTS

The 24 h urine samples from 1420 participants were determined to be properly collected. Mean iodine intakes obtained for men (n 705) and women (n 715) were 179 (sd 68.1) µg/d and 138 (sd 57.8) µg/d, respectively. Urinary Na and Ca, and BMI were significantly and positively associated with higher iodine intake, as were men and non-smokers. Fifty-four per cent of the total iodine intake originated from iodized salt. The prevalence of inadequate iodine intake as estimated by the EAR cut-point method was 2 % for men and 14 % for women.

CONCLUSIONS

The estimated prevalence of inadequate iodine intake was within the optimal target range of 2-3 % for men, but not for women.

Launching a salt substitute to reduce blood pressure at the population level: a cluster randomized stepped wedge trial in Peru

BACKGROUND

Controlling hypertension rates and maintaining normal blood pressure, particularly in resource-constrained settings, represent ongoing challenges of effective and affordable implementation in health care. One of the strategies being largely advocated to improve high blood pressure calls for salt reduction strategies. This study aims to estimate the impact of a population-level intervention based on sodium reduction and potassium increase - in practice, introducing a low-sodium, high-potassium salt substitute - on adult blood pressure levels.

METHODS/DESIGN

The proposed implementation research study includes two components: Phase 1, an exploratory component, and Phase 2, an intervention component. The exploratory component involves a triangle taste test and a formative research study designed to gain an understanding of the best implementation methods. Phase 2 involves a pragmatic stepped wedge trial design where the intervention will be progressively implemented in several clusters starting the intervention randomly at different times. In addition, we will evaluate the implementation strategy using a cost-effectiveness analysis.

DISCUSSION

This is the first project in a Latin-American setting to implement a salt substitution intervention at the population level to tackle high blood pressure. Data generated and lessons learnt from this study will provide a strong platform to address potential interventions applicable to other similar low- and middle-income settings.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study is registered in ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01960972.