First evidence for the presence of aquaporins in stallion sperm

Detection and Localisation of Aquaporins 1, 7 and 11 in Fresh and Frozen-Thawed Canine Epididymal Spermatozoa

Aquaporins are specific water channels that mediate the movement of water and cryoprotectants across the spermatozoa plasma membrane. The aim was to assess the presence and location of AQP1, AQP7 and AQP11 in fresh and frozen-thawed canine epididymal sperm. Using immunocytochemistry, aquaporins 1, 7 and 11 were detected in fresh and frozen spermatozoa collected from the canine epididymis's head and tail. The aquaporin localisation changed between fresh and frozen spermatozoa and spermatozoa from the epididymis head and tail. Our results showed that AQP1, AQP7 and AQP11 have a specific sperm localisation that the AQP location in head and tail epididymal spermatozoa has a different pattern of immunolocalisation, and cryopreservation produces some changes in the AQP7 and AQP11 localisation. In this way, aquaporins could play an essential role in epidydimal spermatozoa's homeostasis and cryopreservation processes.

Cryopreservation of Horse Sperm

Cryopreservation is currently the only strategy for long-term conservation of equine sperm. To get optimal post-thaw sperm survival, carefully following each step of the freezing protocol is crucial. First, one needs to obtain and exhaustively analyze an ejaculate of good sperm quality. Then, the seminal plasma is removed by centrifugation, and the resulting pellet is resuspended in a certain volume of the freezing medium to reach the right sperm concentration. Finally, sperm samples are packaged into 0.5-mL straws, cooled, and frozen using an automatic, controlled-rate freezer. Once the temperature reaches -120 °C, straws are plunged into liquid nitrogen and stored in tanks until their further use.

Recent advances in cryotolerance biomarkers for semen preservation in frozen form-A systematic review

Spermatozoa cryopreservation has been practiced for decades and is a very useful technique for long-term preservation of sperm fertility. The capability for semen cryopreservation varies across species, seasons, latitudes, and even for different ejaculates from the same animal. This article summarizes research results on sperm cryotolerance biomarkers in several species, focusing on three areas: spermatozoa cryotolerance biomarkers, seminal plasma proteins cryotolerance biomarkers, and other cryotolerance biomarkers. We discovered that sperm cryoresistance biomarkers are primarily related to sperm plasma membrane stability, the presence of antioxidant substances in sperm or seminal plasma, sperm cell energy metabolism, water and small molecule transport channels in the sperm plasma membrane, and antistress substances in sperm or seminal plasma. The research conducted using diverse livestock models can be employed to enhance the basic and applied reproduction of other mammals through the study of sperm cryotolerance biomarkers, as well as the substantial similarities between livestock and other organisms, including endangered species.

Freezing Stallion Semen-What Do We Need to Focus on for the Future?

Artificial insemination (AI) is used frequently in the breeding of sport horses, apart from Thoroughbreds. Most AIs are carried out with cooled semen rather than frozen semen because of the difficulties in identifying a protocol that is suitable for freezing most ejaculates and the necessity to inseminate close to ovulation because of the short life of the thawed spermatozoa. More widespread use of frozen semen would improve biosecurity, allow greater choice of stallions, and offer more flexibility when managing deliveries of semen to the stud. It would even decrease the amount of antibiotics used in semen extenders, since the volume of frozen semen is smaller than when cooled semen is inseminated. However, there is considerable variability in the cryosurvival of spermatozoa from different stallions, leading to the classification of stallions as good or bad freezers. Improvements could be made at the level of stallion nutrition, the semen collection regimen, the extender, the removal of seminal plasma, and the cooling protocol, among others. Stallion sperm membranes are highly susceptible to lipid peroxidation, but research on antioxidants has failed to identify an additive that would benefit all stallions. In the future, biomarkers for sperm freezability could be used as an aid in identifying suitable ejaculates for cryopreservation.

Signaling Roleplay between Ion Channels during Mammalian Sperm Capacitation

In order to accomplish their primary goal, mammalian spermatozoa must undergo a series of physiological, biochemical, and functional changes crucial for the acquisition of fertilization ability. Spermatozoa are highly polarized cells, which must swiftly respond to ionic changes on their passage through the female reproductive tract, and which are necessary for male gametes to acquire their functional competence. This review summarizes the current knowledge about specific ion channels and transporters located in the mammalian sperm plasma membrane, which are intricately involved in the initiation of changes within the ionic milieu of the sperm cell, leading to variations in the sperm membrane potential, membrane depolarization and hyperpolarization, changes in sperm motility and capacitation to further lead to the acrosome reaction and sperm-egg fusion. We also discuss the functionality of selected ion channels in male reproductive health and/or disease since these may become promising targets for clinical management of infertility in the future.

Cellular and Molecular Consequences of Stallion Sperm Cryopreservation: Recent Approaches to Improve Sperm Survival

Cryopreservation of stallion semen does not achieve the post-thaw quality or fertility results observed in other species like cattle. There are many reasons for this, but the membrane composition and intracellular changes in stallion sperm predispose them to low resistance to the cooling, freezing, and subsequent thawing process. Damage to the sperm results from different processes activated during cryopreservation, including oxidative stress, apoptosis, and structural modifications in the sperm membrane that increase the deleterious effect on sperm. In addition, significant individual variability is observed among stallions in the ability of sperm to survive the freeze-thaw process. Recent advances in genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and epigenetics are making it possible to advance our understanding of the cellular and molecular processes involved in the cryopreservation process, opening new possibilities for improvement. This review addresses the ongoing research on stallion semen cryopreservation, focusing on the cellular and molecular consequences of this procedure in stallions and discusses the new tools currently available to increase the tolerance of equine spermatozoa to freeze-thaw.

Variation of existence and location of aquaporin 3 in relation to cryoresistance of ram spermatozoa

Introduction and objective

Osmotic changes during the process of freeze-thawing involve changes in the location of aquaporins (AQPs) in membrane domains of spermatozoa. Some AQPs, like aquaporin 3 (AQP3), are linked to sperm cryotolerance in the porcine species. Conspicuous individual variability exists between rams and their ejaculates, which may be classified as displaying good freezability (GFE) or poor freezability (PFE), depending on several endogenous and environmental factors. The present work aimed to examine whether differences in freezability could even involve changes in location and expression of AQP3 in ram spermatozoa.

Methods

Thirty ejaculates from 10 rams (three of each) were evaluated and subsequently classified as GFE (n = 13) or PFE (n = 17) through a principal component analysis (PCA) and k-means cluster analysis. Spermatozoa were examined for the presence, abundance and distribution of AQP3 by western blot and immunocytochemistry, employing a commercial rabbit polyclonal antibody (AQP3 - ab125219).

Results and discussion

Although AQP3 was found in the sperm acrosome, midpiece, principal and end piece of the tail in both fresh and after frozen-thawed samples, its highest immunolabeling was found in the mid- and principal piece. In the GFE group, the expression of AQP3 in the mid- and principal piece was greater (P < 0.05) in frozen-thawed samples than in fresh specimens while such differences were not detected in the PFE group. Sperm cryotolerance relates to changes in AQP3 expression and thus AQP3 could be used as a biomarker for cryotolerance.

Conclusion

A greater capacity of AQP3 localization in mid- and principal piece of the spermatozoa could be linked to an increase the osmo-adaptative capacity of ejaculates with better capacity to withstand freeze-thawing processes.

Aquaporins in Reproductive System

AQP0-12, a total of 13 aquaporins are expressed in the mammalian reproductive system. These aquaporins mediate the transport of water and small solutes across biofilms for maintaining reproductive tract water balance and germ cell water homeostasis. These aquaporins play important roles in the regulation of sperm and egg cell production, maturation, and fertilization processes. Impaired AQP function may lead to diminished male and female fertility. This review focuses on the distribution, function, and regulation of AQPs throughout the male and female reproductive organs and tracts. Their correlation with reproductive success, revealing recent advances in the physiological and pathophysiological roles of aquaporins in the reproductive system.

Effects of egg yolk level, penetrating cryoprotectant, and pre-freeze cooling rate, on the post-thaw quality of stallion sperm

The current study determined the effect of the egg-yolk (phospholipid source) level (egg yolk [20% EY] vs. skim-milk + egg yolk [SM + 2% EY]), cryoprotectant (glycerol [Gly] vs. glycerol + methylformamide [Gly + MF]), and pre-freeze cooling rate (-0.1 vs. -1 vs. -5 °C/min) on post-thaw stallion sperm quality. In Experiment 1, ejaculates (n = 27) from 9 stallions (3 ejaculates each) with varied sperm quality (High, Average, or Low) were frozen in EY-Gly, SMEY-Gly, EY-Gly + MF, or SMEY-Gly + MF extenders. Sperm in each group were cooled from 22° to 5°C using either -0.1 °C/min or -1 °C/min linear cooling rates prior to freezing. In Experiment 2, ejaculates (n = 24) from 12 stallions (2 ejaculates each) with High or Average sperm quality were frozen in EY-Gly, EY-Gly + MF, or in BotuCrio (BC) extenders. Sperm in each group were cooled from 22° to 5°C using either -1 or -5 °C/min linear cooling rates prior to freezing. In Experiment 1, for stallions with High or Average sperm quality, either cooling rate generally resulted in lower sperm quality for the SMEY-based extenders than for the EY-based extenders (P < 0.05). Stallions with Low sperm quality were unaffected by any experimental treatment (P > 0.05). In Experiment 2, a -5 °C/min cooling rate yielded lower sperm quality in BC than in EY-Gly or EY-Gly + MF groups (P < 0.05); however, a -1 °C/min cooling rate yielded similar sperm quality among these treatments (P > 0.05). In summary, the phospholipid level in the freezing extender and the pre-freeze cooling rate, but not the penetrating cryoprotectant, affected the post-thaw quality of stallion sperm.

Expression of Aquaglyceroporins in Spermatozoa from Wild Ruminants Is Influenced by Photoperiod and Thyroxine Concentrations

This work identified the presence of AQPs in frozen-thawed sperm of wild ruminants and assessed the influence of the interaction between photoperiod and thyroxine on AQP expression, and on testosterone secretion. Thyroxine and melatonin were administered to ibexes. In a second experiment, performed in mouflons, circulating thyroxine was reduced via treatment with propylthiouracil (PTU), and an artificial long day (LD) photoperiod established. In the ibexes, the melatonin treatment increased the blood plasma testosterone concentration, reduced the cryoresistance ratio (CR) for sperm viability and the presence of an intact acrosome, and increased the percentage of sperm with AQP7 in the acrosome and of AQP3 and AQP10 in the midpiece. In the mouflons, neither the PTU treatment, the LD, nor the combination of both affected the CR of any sperm variable. The percentage of sperm with AQP3 increased in the post-acrosome region but decreased in the tail in the LD+PTU group. The percentage of sperm with AQP10 in the principal piece and endpiece was lower in the PTU+LD group than in the control and LD groups. The influence of photoperiod/melatonin on AQP expression might be indirectly exerted through changes in the testosterone concentration, and thus ultimately affect sperm cryoresistance.

Relevance of Aquaporins for Gamete Function and Cryopreservation

Simple Summary

The interaction between cells and the extracellular medium is of great importance; changes in medium composition can drive water movement across plasma membranes. Aquaporins (AQPs) are membrane channels involved in the transport of water and some solutes across membranes. When sperm enter the female reproductive tract after ejaculation, they encounter a drastic change in extracellular composition, which leads to water flowing across the plasma membrane. This triggers a series of events that are crucial to allowing fertilization to take place, such as regulation of sperm motility. In the context of assisted reproduction techniques (ART), long-term storage of gametes is sometimes required, and, during cryopreservation, these cells undergo drastic changes in extracellular medium composition. As a result, AQPs are crucial in both sperm and oocytes during this process. Cryopreservation is of considerable importance for fertility preservation in livestock, endangered species and for individuals undergoing certain medical treatments that compromise their fertility. Further research to fully elucidate the roles and underlying mechanisms of AQPs in mammalian sperm is therefore warranted.

Abstract

The interaction between cells and the extracellular medium is of great importance, and drastic changes in extracellular solute concentrations drive water movement across the plasma membrane. Aquaporins (AQPs) are a family of transmembrane channels that allow the transport of water and small solutes across cell membranes. Different members of this family have been identified in gametes. In sperm, they are relevant to osmoadaptation after entering the female reproductive tract, which is crucial for sperm motility activation and capacitation and, thus, for their fertilizing ability. In addition, they are relevant during the cryopreservation process, since some members of this family are also permeable to glycerol, one of the most frequently used cryoprotective agents in livestock. Regarding oocytes, AQPs are very important in their maturation but also during cryopreservation. Further research to define the exact sets of AQPs that are present in oocytes from different species is needed, since the available literature envisages certain AQPs and their roles but does not provide complete information on the whole set of AQPs. This is of considerable importance because, in sperm, specific AQPs are known to compensate the role of non-functional members.

Aquaporins and Animal Gamete Cryopreservation: Advances and Future Challenges

Simple Summary

Cryopreservation is the method for the long-term preservation of gametes and embryos. In recent years, intensive research has focused on improving cryopreservation protocols for the determination of optimal freezing conditions and cryoprotective agents’ concentration for each cell type. The optimal cryopreservation protocol comprises the adequate balance between the freezing rate and the correct concentration of cryoprotective agents to achieve controlled cellular dehydration and minimal intracellular ice formation. Osmoregulation is, therefore, central in cryobiology. Water and some solutes can cross the plasma membrane, whereas facilitating transport takes a great part in intracellular/extracellular fluid homeostasis. Cells express water channels known as aquaporins that facilitate the transport of water and small uncharged solutes on their plasma membrane, including some cryoprotective agents. This review explores the expression and the function of aquaporins in gametes and embryos. In addition, the putative role of aquaporins for cryopreservation procedures is discussed.

Abstract

Cryopreservation is globally used as a method for long-term preservation, although freeze-thawing procedures may strongly impair the gamete function. The correct cryopreservation procedure is characterized by the balance between freezing rate and cryoprotective agents (CPAs), which minimizes cellular dehydration and intracellular ice formation. For this purpose, osmoregulation is a central process in cryopreservation. During cryopreservation, water and small solutes, including penetrating cryoprotective agents, cross the plasma membrane. Aquaporins (AQPs) constitute a family of channel proteins responsible for the transport of water, small solutes, and certain gases across biological membranes. Thirteen homologs of AQPs (AQP0-12) have been described. AQPs are widely distributed throughout the male and female reproductive systems, including the sperm and oocyte membrane. The composition of the male and female gamete membrane is of special interest for assisted reproductive techniques (ART), including cryopreservation. In this review, we detail the mechanisms involved in gamete cryopreservation, including the most used techniques and CPAs. In addition, the expression and function of AQPs in the male and female gametes are explored, highlighting the potential protective role of AQPs against damage induced during cryopreservation.

Aquaporins Are Essential to Maintain Motility and Membrane Lipid Architecture During Mammalian Sperm Capacitation

Aquaporins are a family of ubiquitous transmembrane proteins that allow the transport of water and small molecules across the cell plasma membrane. The different members of this family present a characteristic distribution across different cell types, which is species-specific. In mammalian sperm, different AQPs, including AQP3, AQP7, and AQP11, have been identified; their main roles are related to osmoadaptation and sperm motility activation after ejaculation. Capacitation, which is a post-ejaculatory process that sperm must undergo to achieve fertilizing ability, is triggered by pH changes and different extracellular ions that are present in the female reproductive tract. Considering the function of AQPs and their influence on pH through the regulation of water flow, this study aimed to elucidate the potential role of different AQPs during in vitro sperm capacitation using three different transition metal compounds as AQP inhibitors. Cooper sulfate, a specific inhibitor of AQP3, caused a drastic increase in peroxide intracellular levels compared to the control. Mercury chloride, an unspecific inhibitor of all AQPs except AQP7 produced an increase in membrane lipid disorder and led to a decrease in sperm motility and kinetics parameters. Finally, the addition of silver sulfadiazine, an unspecific inhibitor of all AQPs, generated the same effects than mercury chloride, decreased the intracellular pH and altered tyrosine phosphorylation levels after the induction of the acrosome reaction. In the light of the aforementioned, (a) the permeability of AQP3 to peroxides does not seem to be crucial for sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction; (b) AQPs have a key role in preserving sperm motility during that process; and (c) AQPs as a whole seem to contribute to the maintenance of lipid membrane architecture during capacitation and may be related to the intracellular signaling pathways involved in the acrosome reaction. Hence, further research aimed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the involvement of AQPs in mammalian sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction is warranted.

Aquaporins: New markers for male (in)fertility in livestock and poultry?

Improving the methods utilized to facilitate reproduction is associated with a constant need to search for new factors that not only significantly affect reproductive processes, but also create new possibilities when assessing male reproductive potential. Aquaporins (AQPs) belong to a family of small (28-30 kDa) proteins that facilitate the transport of water and other small molecules. There have been 13 AQPs (AQP0-AQP12) discovered in mammals, and these proteins are present in a wide range of cell types. Almost all AQPs, except AQP6 and AQP12 are present in the male reproductive organs and sperm of mammals and birds. Increasing evidence suggests that these proteins are involved in a number of processes responsible for the optimal functioning of the male reproductive system. This review presents the current state of knowledge regarding the abundance and distribution of AQPs in the male reproductive organs and sperm of various livestock and poultry species, including buffalo, cattle, sheep, horses, pigs, turkeys and goose. Furthermore, the possible physiological and pathophysiological significance of AQPs in male reproduction, as well as hormonal regulation of quantities are discussed. It can be concluded from the studies analyzed in this paper that abundance patterns of AQPs may be considered in the future as specific and universal biomarkers of male fertility and infertility in animal husbandry.

Osmoregulation in fish sperm

In most fish exhibiting external fertilization, spermatozoa become motile after release into water, triggered by differences between intracellular and extracellular conditions such as osmotic pressure, ion composition, and pH. The rapid change in osmolarity initiating spermatozoon motility induces osmotic pressure, resulting in active water movement across the cell membrane. Mechanisms of ion and water transport across the plasma membrane and cell volume regulation are important in maintaining structure and functional integrity of the cell. The capacity of the fish spermatozoon plasma membrane to adapt to dramatic environmental changes is an essential prerequisite for motility and successful fertilization. Adaptation to change in external osmolality may be the basis of spermatozoon function and an indicator of sperm quality. The involvement of specific water channels (aquaporins) in cell volume regulation and motility is highly likely. The goal of this review is to describe basic mechanisms of water transport and their role in fish spermatozoon physiology, focusing on osmoresistance, cell volume regulation, motility, and survival.

Observations on Dag-like defect of spermatozoa induced by treatment of the phytotherapeutic Quassia amara/quassin in the mouse model

Gross alterations in the morphology of spermatozoa, teratozoospermia, invariably render them incapable of fertilisation. One of the contributory factors to teratozoospermia is failure of spermatozoon to shed the cytoplasmic droplet even after their arrival at epididymis. Quassia amara and quassin are of medicinal value with special reference to malaria. Nevertheless, there are also reports implicating Quassia/quassin in male reproductive toxicity. We were interested in finding if its therapeutic application would jeopardise male fertility. So, we tested it for male reproductive toxicity by analysing, among other aspects, abnormal sperm morphologies, and made a systematic analysis of the spermatozoa of treated mice before they are spermiated and until they arrive at the cauda epididymis. The spermatozoa not only failed to shed the cytoplasmic droplet during epididymal transit but swell to a very large size and were angulated, resulting in Dag-like defect or lasso shape. A link between cytoplasmic droplet that was retained and lasso shape of tail was indicated. This article traces the structural changes in spermatozoa that lead to angulation, flexion and coiling of the tail, caused due to retention of cytoplasmic droplet, and explains one of the mechanisms of toxicant-induced teratozoospermia.

Aquaporins and (in)fertility: More than just water transport

Aquaporins (AQPs) are a family of channel proteins that facilitate the transport of water and small solutes across biological membranes. They are widely distributed throughout the organism, having a number of key functions, some of them unexpected, both in health and disease. Among the various diseases in which AQPs are involved, infertility has been overlooked. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) infertility is a global public health problem with one third of the couples suffering from subfertility or even infertility due to male or female factors alone or combined. Thus, there is an urgent need to unveil the molecular mechanisms that control gametes production, maturation and fertilization-related events, to more specifically determine infertility causes. In addition, as more couples seek for fertility treatment through assisted reproductive technologies (ART), it is pivotal to understand how these techniques can be improved. AQPs are heterogeneously expressed throughout the male and female reproductive tracts, highlighting a possible regulatory role for these proteins in conception. In fact, their function, far beyond water transport, highlights potential intervention points to enhance ART. In this review we discuss AQPs distribution and structural organization, functions, and modulation throughout the male and female reproductive tracts and their relevance to the reproductive success. We also highlight the most recent advances and research trends regarding how the different AQPs are involved and regulated in specific mechanisms underlying (in)fertility. Finally, we discuss the involvement of AQPs in ART-related processes and how their handling can lead to improvement of infertility treatment.

Effect of AQP Inhibition on Boar Sperm Cryotolerance Depends on the Intrinsic Freezability of the Ejaculate

Aquaporins (AQPs) are transmembrane channels with permeability to water and small solutes that can be classified according to their structure and permeability into orthodox AQPs, aquaglyceroporins (GLPs), and superAQPs. In boar spermatozoa, AQPs are related to osmoregulation and play a critical role in maturation and motility activation. In addition, their levels differ between ejaculates with good and poor cryotolerance (GFE and PFE, respectively). The aim of this work was to elucidate whether the involvement of AQPs in the sperm response to cryopreservation relies on the intrinsic freezability of the ejaculate. With this purpose, two different molecules: phloretin (PHL) and 1,3-propanediol (PDO), were used to inhibit sperm AQPs in GFE and PFE. Boar sperm samples were treated with three different concentrations of each inhibitor prior to cryopreservation, and sperm quality and functionality parameters were evaluated in fresh samples and after 30 and 240 min of thawing. Ejaculates were classified as GFE or PFE, according to their post-thaw sperm viability and motility. While the presence of PHL caused a decrease in sperm quality and function compared to the control, samples treated with PDO exhibited better quality and function parameters than the control. In addition, the effects of both inhibitors were more apparent in GFE than in PFE. In conclusion, AQP inhibition has more notable consequences in GFE than in PFE, which can be related to the difference in relative levels of AQPs between these two groups of samples.

Cryotolerance of Stallion Spermatozoa Relies on Aquaglyceroporins rather than Orthodox Aquaporins

Aquaporins (AQPs), a family of ubiquitous water channels divided into orthodox AQPs, aquaglyceroporins (GLPs), and superAQPs, are present in stallion spermatozoa. The aim of this study was to elucidate the functional relevance of each group of AQPs during stallion sperm cryopreservation through the use of three different inhibitors: acetazolamide (AC), phloretin (PHL) and propanediol (PDO). Sperm quality and function parameters were evaluated in the presence or absence of each inhibitor in fresh and frozen–thawed samples. In the presence of AC, different parameters were altered (p < 0.05), but not in a concentration- or time-depending manner. PHL was found to decrease sperm motility, viability, acrosome integrity, and the percentages of spermatozoa with low membrane lipid disorder, high mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and high intracellular levels of calcium and superoxides (p < 0.05). Finally, the sperm motility, viability, acrosome integrity, the percentages of spermatozoa with low membrane lipid disorder, high MMP and high intracellular calcium levels were higher (p < 0.05) in PDO treatments than in the control. The sperm response to AC, PHL and PDO indicates that GLPs, rather than orthodox AQPs, play a crucial role during stallion sperm cryopreservation. Furthermore, post-thaw sperm quality was higher in PDO treatments than in the control, suggesting that this molecule is a potential permeable cryoprotectant.

The Effect of N-N-Dimethylformamide on the Membrane Characteristics of Canine Spermatozoa After Cryopreservation, and its Relationship With Post-Thaw Motility

Some studies have demonstrated that glycerol is superior to amides in preserving sperm motion characteristics of canine sperm; however, little is known about the effect of these cryoprotectants on the membrane characteristics of canine spermatozoa after freezing/thawing. In this study, the effects of using either N-N-dimethylformamide (DMF) or glycerol (GLY) on the integrity and function of the canine sperm, after cryopreservation were determined. We hypothesized that the use of a multiparametric approach for assessing the effect of DMF on the membranes of canine sperm would explain the lower values reported for post-thaw motility. Ejaculates from 12 dogs were collected, split into 2 groups, and frozen using a tris-fructose-citrate-egg yolk-based extender containing either 7% (v/v) GLY or 7% (v/v) DMF. Frozen straws (n = 120) were thawed and analyzed for subjectively-assessed sperm progressive motility, normal morphology, plasma membrane integrity, plasma membrane function (HOST+), acrosome membrane integrity, high mitochondrial membrane potential, and simultaneous assessment of sperm membrane integrity and function by a triple-staining fluorescent procedure. Overall, sperm motility and membrane intactness/function were higher when GLY was used as a cryoprotectant, as compared to DMF (P < .05). A model to explain the variation in progressive motility using the values obtained from the sperm integrity and function parameters was designed. The percent HOST+ sperm and high mitochondrial membrane potential sperm were mostly associated with the changes observed in the progressive motility (r² = 0.84; P = .043) when either GLY or DMF were used as cryoprotectants. These results may explain the overall reduced sperm quality observed after cryopreservation, as a reflection of sublethal damage sustained by the sperm membranes.

Aquaglyceroporins but not orthodox aquaporins are involved in the cryotolerance of pig spermatozoa

Background

Aquaporins (AQPs) are a family of transmembrane water channels that includes orthodox AQPs, aquaglyceroporins (GLPs) and superAQPs. AQP3, AQP7, AQP9 and AQP11 have been identified in boar sperm, and they are crucial for sperm maturation and osmoregulation. Water exchange is an important event in cryopreservation, which is the most efficient method for long-term storage of sperm. However, the freeze-thaw process leads to sperm damage and a loss of fertilizing potential. Assuming that the quality of frozen-thawed sperm partially depends on the regulation of osmolality variations during this process, AQPs might play a crucial role in boar semen freezability. In this context, the aim of this study was to unravel the functional relevance of the different groups of AQPs for boar sperm cryotolerance through three different inhibitors.

Results

Inhibition of different groups of AQPs was found to have different effects on boar sperm cryotolerance. Whereas the use of 1,3-propanediol (PDO), an inhibitor of orthodox AQPs and GLPs, decreased total motility (P < 0.05), it increased post-thaw sperm viability, lowered membrane lipid disorder and increased mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) (P < 0.05). When acetazolamide (AC) was used as an inhibitor of orthodox AQPs, the effects on post-thaw sperm quality were restricted to a mild increase in MMP in the presence of the intermediate concentration at 30 min post-thaw and an increase in superoxide levels (P < 0.05). Finally, the addition of phloretin (PHL), a GLP inhibitor, had detrimental effects on post-thaw total and progressive sperm motilities, viability and lipid membrane disorder (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

The effects of the different inhibitors suggest that GLPs rather than orthodox AQPs are relevant for boar sperm freezability. Moreover, the positive effect of PDO on sperm quality suggests a cryoprotective role for this molecule.

Aquaporin 11 is related to cryotolerance and fertilising ability of frozen-thawed bull spermatozoa

Aquaporins (AQPs) are channel proteins involved in the transport of water and solutes across biological membranes. In the present study we identified and localised aquaporin 11 (AQP11) in bull spermatozoa and investigated the relationship between the relative AQP11 content, sperm cryotolerance and the fertilising ability of frozen-thawed semen. Bull ejaculates were classified into two groups of good and poor freezability and assessed through immunofluorescence and immunoblotting analyses before and after cryopreservation. AQP11 was localised throughout the entire tail and along the sperm head. These findings were confirmed through immunoblotting, which showed a specific band of approximately 50 kDa corresponding to AQP11. The relative amount of AQP11 was significantly (P<0.05) higher in both fresh and frozen-thawed spermatozoa from bull ejaculates with good freezability compared with those with poorer freezability. In addition, in vitro oocyte penetration rates and non-return rates 56 days after AI were correlated with the relative AQP11 content in fresh spermatozoa. In conclusion, AQP11 is present in the head and tail of bull spermatozoa and its relative amount in fresh and frozen-thawed spermatozoa is related to the resilience of the spermatozoa to withstand cryopreservation and the fertilising ability of frozen-thawed spermatozoa. Further research is needed to elucidate the actual role of sperm AQP11 in bovine fertility.

A new test based on the hypotonic resistance and functional competence to evaluate the sperm quality, cryotolerance and in vitro fertilizing ability in pigs

The present work aimed at setting a new test of boar sperm functional competence (SFCt) to determine the association with sperm in vitro fertilizing ability and cryotolerance. Three independent experiments were conducted. In the first experiment, a gage repeatability and reproducibility (R&R) study was carried out to determine the reliability of the SFCt. Following this, 1565 ejaculates were clustered on the basis of sperm membrane and acrosome integrity, total motility, morphology and membrane functional integrity. Two groups were obtained and their SFCt values were compared. In the second experiment, 45 ejaculates were classified into two groups based on cleavage rates after in vitro fertilization and the SFCt outcomes of the two groups were examined. In the third experiment, 45 ejaculates were cryopreserved and classified as with good (GFE) or poor freezability (PFE) based on their post-thaw sperm membrane integrity and total motility; the SFCt outcomes in liquid-stored semen were also compared. ROC curves were used to address the accuracy of the SFCt in each experiment. In the R&R study, the greater variability of the study was attributed to the differences between ejaculates (97.61%); SFCt values were significantly (P < 0.01) higher in the good than in the poor sperm quality group. Ejaculates with high cleavage rates showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher SFCt values than ejaculates with low cleavage rates. SFCt values of GFE before cryopreservation were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those of PFE. The SFCt had a fair discriminatory value in all experiments. In conclusion, the SFCt is a useful and reliable test to evaluate the sperm quality and is also related to the sperm resilience to withstand freeze-thawing procedures. However, further studies evaluating blastocyst formation and AI trials with a large number of boars are needed to confirm the accuracy of this test.