Factors influencing chicken farmers' decisions to implement prevention and control measures to reduce avian influenza virus spread under endemic conditions

Assessment of communal farmers' knowledge of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) within the FMD protection zone with vaccination of Limpopo and Mpumalanga Provinces, South Africa

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease affecting domestic livestock and its control in South Africa depends on methods including event-based surveillance and the reporting of disease by farmers. This study assessed FMD knowledge level among small-scale, communal livestock farmers in South Africa's FMD zone with vaccination. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 629 farmers from 44 dip-tanks (animal assembly points). A FMD knowledge score was derived from 25 yes/no questions with scores above the median classified as high FMD knowledge. Mixed-effects logistic regression was used to evaluate predictors of high FMD knowledge with associations reported as odds ratios (OR) and their corresponding 95 % confidence intervals (CI). Eighty percent of the participants were male and 65 % aged 60 or older. The most common livestock raised was cattle (98.1 %). Sixty-six percent (415/629) of the interviewed farmers reported that they were aware of the existence of FMD. Formal education (OR 2.0, 95 % CI, 1.4-2.9, P < 0.001), poultry ownership (OR 1.7, 95 % CI 1.1-2.5, P = 0.006), livestock farming as the main occupation (OR 1.6, 95 % CI 1.1-2.3, P = 0.026) and the total livestock units of their farm (OR 1.5, 95 % CI 1.1-1.9, P = 0.002) were significant predictors of FMD recognition. Most respondents (54 %) that claimed to be aware of the existence of FMD did not know that African buffalos were a source of FMD virus. Also, less than half of the respondents cited lameness (38 %) and excessive salivation (37 %) as the main FMD clinical signs. Only a small proportion (2.4 %) of these respondents were aware that movement of infected animals can cause FMD virus to spread to new areas. FMD knowledge scores were calculated for the 415 respondents claiming to be aware of the existence FMD with 174 (42 %) having a total knowledge score greater than the median (hereafter referred to as "high FMD knowledge" compared to the rest of the farmers). Farmers from Vhembe District in Limpopo had an odds of high FMD knowledge four times higher than those in Ehlanzeni District in Mpumalanga (OR 4.0, 95 % CI 1.7-9.4, P = 0.002). Farmers that owned more than 15 cattle (OR 1.7, 95 % CI 1.0-2.8, P = 0.035) and farmers that supervised their own cattle during grazing (OR 1.6, 95 % CI 1.0-2.5, P = 0.043) also had a significantly higher odds of high FMD knowledge. Communal farmers in South Africa have gaps in their FMD knowledge and specifically were not aware that movement of infected animals and their products pose a threat for the spread of FMD. Comprehensive information, education and training for communal livestock farmers are essential for improving event-based surveillance and FMD prevention and control in the region.

Supporting Measures to Improve Biosecurity within Italian Poultry Production

This paper describes the selection and validation of supporting measures (SMs) aimed at enhancing biosecurity compliance within Italian poultry farms. A tailored methodology, based on a stakeholders' survey involving farmers and advisors, included a virtual farm tour, group discussion, and farmer coaching. Virtual farm tours and group discussions were delivered during two meetings targeting meat and egg production stakeholders, separately. Coaching was validated in 26 pilot farms (PFs) by assessing farmers' attitudes towards change (i.e., ADKAR®) and farms' biosecurity score (i.e., Biocheck.UgentTM) before and after a minimum six-month period. A total of 20 out of 26 farmers agreed to implement at least one action plan (AP). Full implementation of the agreed APs was observed in ten farms, while others only partially implemented (n = 7) or did not implement (n = 3) the improvement. Most APs focused on enhancing house hygiene locks (n = 7), followed by bacterial auto-control after cleaning and disinfection (n = 4). Scoring tools indicated minimal or no variations in farmers' attitudes towards change and farm biosecurity. Virtual farm tours and group discussions were found to be effective in fostering interaction and facilitating the exchange of experiences and knowledge among farmers and stakeholders of poultry production. Coaching indicated that farmers might prefer implementing minor changes possibly influenced by time and cost constraints associated with structural interventions. These limitations could have also impacted the scores of the farmer/farm. The findings of this study provide a foundation for further application of SMs to improve biosecurity in Italian poultry farms.

Risk factors associated with mcr-1 colistin-resistance gene in Escherichia coli broiler samples in northern Jordan

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of colistin-resistant Escherichia coli carrying mcr-1, and to identify risk factors associated with mcr gene-mediated resistance.

METHODS

In total, 385 cloacal samples were collected from 125 broiler farms and a questionnaire containing information about each farm was designed and filled.

RESULTS

Most of the antibiotics used in the disk diffusion method were highly resistant in all samples, with tetracycline and penicillin showing 100% and 99.7% resistance, respectively. Additionally, avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) virulence genes frequency and percentage of APEC were identified, including sitA,iucC, and astA at 77%, 70.5%, and 62% respectively. In total, 214 of 360 isolates were positive for APEC (59.4%). Based on the minimum inhibitory (MIC) test, 58% of the isolates (n = 209 of 360) were resistant to colistin, with 39.7% displaying the mcr-1 gene. The statistical analysis of risk factors that influence colistin resistance prevalence revealed several significant factors, including commercial feed, farm management, sanitization, and antibiotic use. Irregular health checks for workers, non-dipping of feet before entering poultry houses, and the use of commercial poultry feeds all contributed to higher levels of colistin resistance as measured by MIC. On the other hand, doxycycline and commercial feed was 4 and 3.2 times more likely to occur based on the final logistic model of the mcr-1 gene, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that better biosecurity protocols should be implemented in poultry farms to reduce antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Additionally, antibiotics should be carefully monitored and used only when necessary.

The One Health Epidemiology of Avian Influenza Infection in Bangladesh: Lessons Learned from the Past 15 Years

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) are significant transboundary zoonotic pathogens that concern both animal and human. Since the first report of H5N1 AIV in Bangladesh in early 2007, it resulted in numerous outbreaks across the country, hindering the sustainable growth of the poultry industry through economic losses in different production systems (commercial and backyard). Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus and low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) virus are currently cocirculating and causing infection in poultry sectors in an endemic manner in Bangladesh as well as in wild bird species. The introduction of multiple clades of H5N1 in different poultry species and the reassortment of AIVs with different patterns of infections have complicated the epidemiological situation for control and created conditions to increase the virulence of the virus, host range, and potential zoonotic transmission. The risk of viral transmission at the human-poultry interface is increasing over time due to inadequate surveillance and early detection strategies and practices, ineffective biosecurity practices among poultry raisers, and the complex supply chains of backyard and commercial poultry and live bird market (LBM) systems. Improving AIV surveillance in poultry flocks and LBMs, vaccination, biosecurity, and awareness among poultry professionals is beneficial to controlling the disease burden in the poultry sector. However, human cases of AIV related to poultry production and marketing chain in Bangladesh suggest a One Health approach engaging various stakeholders from the public and private would be a better option for successfully controlling avian influenza outbreaks in Bangladesh. This review of literature presents the comprehensive overview of AIV infection status in Bangladesh, including a description of pathways for zoonotic transmission at different epidemiological interfaces, the genetic evolution of the virus, and the need for improvement of disease control strategies incorporated with early detection, application of effective vaccines, increases the proper biosecurity practices and improvement of awareness among the poultry raisers, traders and consumers using a One Health approach.

Striving for long term sustainability - is it time we changed our approach to animal health in low- and middle-income countries?

Animal health and agricultural productivity in low- and middle-income countries have been the focus of research for development (R4D) projects for decades, with varying levels of success when considering the long-term sustainability of interventions. Many of these projects have been funded, designed and implemented by researchers from high income countries, and therefore risk neglecting the cultural nuances and complex country histories that can influence their success. This opinion piece suggests three broad recommendations: (1) implementing culturally congruent practices to improve disease control and prevention practices at the village level; (2) promoting public-private partnerships to improve control of transboundary animal diseases; and (3) improving national animal health and veterinary services and their governance to improve disease surveillance, control and prevention. Development researchers need to consider implementing these approaches in future projects to improve the suitability and sustainability of interventions and acknowledging the current technical capacity of host countries. Foreign donor organisations need to ensure their funding guidelines and reporting requirements allow for these recommendations to be adequately implemented.

Determinants of farmers' biosecurity mindset: A social-ecological model using systems thinking

Commercial poultry is often farmed in high-density facilities, therefore, predisposing exposure to threats of infectious diseases. Studies suggest that it is likely that farmers have little motivation to practise on-farm biosecurity. In Taiwan, where high-density intensive poultry production is commonplace, unfortunately, several avian influenza outbreaks have occurred over the past decade despite the establishment of biosecurity procedures. To develop effective interventions, it is essential to understand the determinants of farmers' biosecurity mindset through systems thinking. In this qualitative study, we directly explored the opinions of Taiwan's chicken farmers, and a grounded theory analysis was performed. The study revealed that farmers allocate resources based on their justification for the optimisation of resource utilisation, and biosecurity is the most concerning challenge. Farmers focus on the economic aspects of their production systems, particularly when the implementation of biosecurity increases production costs, and there are multifaceted, complex barriers to implementing on-farm biosecurity. Although the participant farmers accepted to take major responsibility for disease management, paradoxically, some farmers blamed the practicality of government regulations and government employees' attitudes. Additionally, the farmers rejected the government's intentions to ask farmers to take major responsibility for the outbreaks of avian influenza while some of them intended to ignore the perceived risks. Government interventions that were considered not directly related to biosecurity also negatively influenced farmers' willingness to improve biosecurity. Using the interview results together with information in the scientific literature, we constructed a modified six-level social-ecological model to explain the complex influences of macro socio-economic conditions on farmers' biosecurity mindset. The novelty of this research lies in its wider relevance to Taiwan's chicken production industry in that it provides first-hand evidence-based knowledge to demonstrate a wide number of determinants of farmers' biosecurity mindset. This social-ecological model highlights the importance of systems thinking for the development of behavioural interventions and allows adaptation to the local context. The findings of this study have relevance to Taiwan's chicken production industry and potentially to similar systems in other countries in the wider region and should result in more effective animal health management at the farm level.

The impact of the epidemic experience on the recovery of production of pig farmers after the outbreak-Evidence from the impact of African swine fever (ASF) in Chinese pig farming

The African swine fever (ASF) has triggered considerable shocks to the pig farming industry, which has become a significant animal disease epidemic. The study explores the effect of epidemic experience on post-outbreak production recovery from resilience and risk perception based on 340 micro-survey data from Sichuan, Henan, and Shandong provinces. Epidemic experience has been shown to impact the degree of post-outbreak production recovery positively, and farmers who have endured epidemics are more likely to recover their production after outbreaks. The mechanistic study indicates that past epidemics in African swine fever shocks can effectively improve farmers' cognitive resilience and management capability, enhance recovery, and reduce risk perception in the aftermath of production recovery. In order to alleviate the endogenous problems caused by selection bias, missing variables, and two-way causality. This paper uses factor analysis to comprehensively measure production recovery capacity and production risk perception, and uses propensity score matching(PSM), instrumental variable method and replacement measurement methods to conduct robustness tests, and find the conclusions are still robust. The empirical analysis shows that the experience of the epidemic will promote the recovery of farmers after the outbreak; the experience of the epidemic will significantly impact the recovery of production after the outbreak for both free-range and professional farmers.

Farm-Level Risk Factors Associated With Avian Influenza A (H5) and A (H9) Flock-Level Seroprevalence on Commercial Broiler and Layer Chicken Farms in Bangladesh

A cross-sectional study was conducted to identify farm-level risk factors associated with avian influenza A H5 and H9 virus exposure on commercial chicken farms in Bangladesh. For broiler farms, both H5 and H9 seropositivity were associated with visits by workers from other commercial chicken farms [odds ratio (OR) for H5 = 15.1, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.8-80.8; OR for H9 = 50.1, 95% CI: 4.5-552.7], H5 seropositivity was associated with access of backyard ducks (OR = 21.5, 95% CI: 2.3-201.1), and H9 seropositivity with a number of farm employees (OR = 9.4, 95% CI: 1.1-80.6). On layer farms, both H5 and H9 seropositivity were associated with presence of stray dogs (OR for H5 = 3.1, 95% CI: 1.1-9.1; OR for H9 = 4.0, 95% CI: 1.1-15.3), H5 seropositivity with hatcheries supplying chicks (OR = 0.0, 95% CI: 0.0-0.3), vehicles entering farms (OR = 5.8, 95% CI: 1.5-22.4), number of farm employees (OR = 5.8, 95% CI: 1.2-28.2), and burying of dead birds near farms (OR = 4.6, 95% CI: 1.2-17.3); H9 seropositivity with traders supplying feed (OR = 5.9, 95% CI: 1.0-33.9), visits conducted of other commercial poultry farms (OR = 4.7, 95% CI: 1.1-20.6), number of spent layers sold (OR = 24.0, 95% CI: 3.7-155.0), and frequency of replacing chicken droppings (OR = 28.3, 95% CI: 2.8-284.2). Policies addressing these risk factors will increase the effectiveness of prevention and control strategies reducing the risk of avian influenza on commercial chicken farms.

Preventive effect of on-farm biosecurity practices against highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N6 infection on commercial layer farms in the Republic of Korea during the 2016-17 epidemic: A case-control study

Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIv) H5N6 has destructive consequences on the global poultry production system. Recently, a growing number of layer farms have been heavily damaged from the HPAIv epidemic due to the increased virulence of the virus and the intensification of the production system. Therefore, stakeholders should implement effective preventive practices at the farm level that are aligned with contingency measures at the national level to minimize poultry losses. However, numerous biosecurity protocols for layer farm workers to follow have been developed, impeding efficient prevention and control. Furthermore, the effectiveness of biosecurity practices varies with the geographical condition and inter-farm contact structures. Hence, the objective of our study was to examine the preventive effect of five biosecurity actions commonly practiced at layer farms in the Republic of Korea against HPAIv H5N6: (i) fence installation around a farm, ii) rodent control inside a farm; iii) disinfection booth for visitors for disinfection protocols, iv) an anterior room in the sheds before entering the bird area and v) boots changes when moving between sheds in the same farm. We conducted a case-control study on 114 layer case farms and 129 layer control farms during the 2016-17 HPAI epidemic. The odds ratios for five on-farm biosecurity practices implemented in those study groups were estimated as a preventive effect on the HPAI infection with covariates, including seven geographical conditions and three network metrics using Bayesian hierarchical logistic regression and geographical location weighted logistic regression. The results showed that the use of a disinfection booth for personnel reduced the odds of HPAIv H5N6 infection (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.002, 95 % credible interval [CrI] = 0.00007 - 0.025) with relatively small spatial variation (minimum AOR - maximum AOR: 0.084-0.263). Changing boots between sheds on the same farm reduced the odds of HPAIv H5N6 infection (AOR = 0.160, 95 % CrI = 0.024-0.852) with relatively wide spatial variation (minimum AOR - maximum AOR = 0.270-0.688). Therefore, enhanced personnel biosecurity protocols at the farm of entry for layer farms is recommended to effectively prevent and respond to HPAIv H5N6 infection under different local condition. Our study provides an important message for layer farmers to effectively implement on-farm biosecurity actions against HPAIv H5N6 infection at their farms by setting priorities based on their spatial condition and network position.