Relative degree of stimulation-evoked glycogen degradation in muscle fibres of different type in rat gastrocnemius

Skeletal muscle fiber type-selective effects of acute exercise on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in insulin-resistant, high-fat-fed rats

Insulin-stimulated glucose uptake (GU) by skeletal muscle is enhanced several hours after acute exercise in rats with normal or reduced insulin sensitivity. Skeletal muscle is composed of multiple fiber types, but exercise's effect on fiber type-specific insulin-stimulated GU in insulin-resistant muscle was previously unknown. Male rats were fed a high-fat diet (HFD; 2 wk) and were either sedentary (SED) or exercised (2-h exercise). Other, low-fat diet-fed (LFD) rats remained SED. Rats were studied immediately postexercise (IPEX) or 3 h postexercise (3hPEX). Epitrochlearis muscles from IPEX rats were incubated in 2-deoxy-[³H]glucose (2-[³H]DG) without insulin. Epitrochlearis muscles from 3hPEX rats were incubated with 2-[³H]DG ± 100 µU/ml insulin. After single fiber isolation, GU and fiber type were determined. Glycogen and lipid droplets (LDs) were assessed histochemically. GLUT4 abundance was determined by immunoblotting. In HFD-SED vs. LFD-SED rats, insulin-stimulated GU was decreased in type IIB, IIX, IIAX, and IIBX fibers. Insulin-independent GU IPEX was increased and glycogen content was decreased in all fiber types (types I, IIA, IIB, IIX, IIAX, and IIBX). Exercise by HFD-fed rats enhanced insulin-stimulated GU in all fiber types except type I. Single fiber analyses enabled discovery of striking fiber type-specific differences in HFD and exercise effects on insulin-stimulated GU. The fiber type-specific differences in insulin-stimulated GU postexercise in insulin-resistant muscle were not attributable to a lack of fiber recruitment, as indirectly evidenced by insulin-independent GU and glycogen IPEX, differences in multiple LD indexes, or altered GLUT4 abundance, implicating fiber type-selective differences in the cellular processes responsible for postexercise enhancement of insulin-mediated GLUT4 translocation.

The effects of neuropeptide Y on skeletal muscle contractile properties in streptozotocin diabetic rats

Diabetes induces changes in the structural, biochemical, electrical, and contractile properties of skeletal muscles. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) administered locally can induce angiogenesis in a rat ischemic limb model and restore the contractile function of the ischemic muscle. The effects of NPY on the contractile characteristics of limb skeletal muscles were examined in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Rats were treated with sham pellets (control groups) or NPY-containing pellets (1 mg of NPY/pellet, 14 days releasing time) administered locally to the rat hind limb 2 months after induction of diabetes. Contractile properties and fatigability of the slow-twitch soleus and fast-twitch gastrocnemius medials muscle were compared in control (sham), control NPY, diabetic (sham), and diabetic NPY groups. In order to induce fatigue trains of repetitive tetanic stimulation were used (600 ms/1 s simulation-rest cycle per train, 112 trains at an 85-Hz fusion frequency). Two months of untreated diabetes significantly prolonged soleus contraction and slowed its relaxation, but had minimal effects on soleus tension. NPY ameliorated the diabetic effects on soleus speed-related contractile properties, restoring its contraction and relaxation times. Diabetes significantly reduced gastrocnemius medials tetanic tension, leaving its contractile characteristics mostly unaffected. NPY partially restored gastrocnemius tetanic tension production capacity. Diabetes significantly increased fatigability of both muscles, which was partially restored by NPY, as evidenced by restored endurance of soleus muscle. The results suggest that NPY administered locally tends to normalize muscle performance and improve fatigue resistance of skeletal muscles in streptozotocin diabetes. Further examination is needed to establish the mechanisms of local NPY action on muscle contractile properties in streptozotocin-induced diabetes.

The image of motor units architecture in the mechanomyographic signal during the single motor unit contraction: in vivo and simulation study

The mechanomyographic (MMG) signal analysis has been performed during single motor unit (MU) contractions of the rat medial gastrocnemius muscle. The MMG has been recorded as a muscle surface displacement by using a laser distance sensor. The profiles of the MMG signal let to categorize these signals for particular MUs into three classes. Class MMG-P (positive) comprises MUs with the MMG signal similar to the force signal profile, where the distance between the muscle surface and the laser sensor increases with the force increase. The class MMG-N (negative) has also the MMG profile similar to the force profile, however the MMG is inverted in comparison to the force signal and the distance measured by using laser sensor decreases with the force increase. The third class MMG-M (mixed) characterize the MMG which initially increases with the force increases and when the force exceeds some level it starts to decrease towards the negative values. The semi-pennate muscle model has been proposed, enabling estimation of the MMG generated by a single MU depending on its localization. The analysis have shown that in the semi-pennate muscle the localization of the MU and the relative position of the laser distance sensor determine the MMG profile and amplitude. Thus, proposed classification of the MMG recordings is not related to the physiological types of MUs, but only to the MU localization and mentioned sensor position. When the distance sensor is located over the middle of the muscle belly, a part of the muscle fibers have endings near the location of the sensor beam. For the MU MMG of class MMG-N the deflection of the muscle surface proximal to the sensor mainly influences the MMG recording, whereas for the MU MMG class MMG-P, it is mainly the distal muscle surface deformation. For the MU MMG of MMG-M type the effects of deformation within the proximal and distal muscle surfaces overlap. The model has been verified with experimental recordings, and its responses are consistent and adequate in comparison to the experimental data.

Recruitment of single muscle fibers during submaximal cycling exercise

In literature, an inconsistency exists in the submaximal exercise intensity at which type II fibers are activated. In the present study, the recruitment of type I and II fibers was investigated from the very beginning and throughout a 45-min cycle exercise at 75% of the maximal oxygen uptake, which corresponded to 38% of the maximal dynamic muscle force. Biopsies of the vastus lateralis muscle were taken from six subjects at rest and during the exercise, two at each time point. From the first biopsy single fibers were isolated and characterized as type I and II, and phosphocreatine-to-creatine (PCr/Cr) ratios and periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) stain intensities were measured. Cross sections were cut from the second biopsy, individual fibers were characterized as type I and II, and PAS stain intensities were measured. A decline in PCr/Cr ratio and in PAS stain intensity was used as indication of fiber recruitment. Within 1 min of exercise both type I and, although to a lesser extent, type II fibers were recruited. Furthermore, the PCr/Cr ratio revealed that the same proportion of fibers was recruited during the whole 45 min of exercise, indicating a rather constant recruitment. The PAS staining, however, proved inadequate to fully demonstrate fiber recruitment even after 45 min of exercise. We conclude that during cycling exercise a greater proportion of type II fibers is recruited than previously reported for isometric contractions, probably because of the dynamic character of the exercise. Furthermore, the PCr/Cr ratio method is more sensitive in determining fiber activation than the PAS stain intensity method.

Skeletal muscle phenotype is associated with exercise tolerance in patients with peripheral arterial disease

OBJECTIVE

To better understand the association between skeletal muscle and exercise intolerance in peripheral arterial disease (PAD), we assessed treadmill-walking performance and gastrocnemius muscle phenotype in healthy control subjects and in patients with PAD. We hypothesized that gastrocnemius muscle characteristics would be altered in PAD compared with control subjects and that exercise tolerance in patients PAD would be related to muscle phenotype.

METHODS

Sixteen patients with PAD and intermittent claudication and 13 healthy controls of the same age participated. Each subject completed a graded treadmill-walking test and underwent a resting muscle biopsy. Muscle biopsy samples were obtained from the medial gastrocnemius muscle of the most ischemic limb in PAD and a limb chosen at random in controls. Samples were analyzed for fiber type and cross-sectional area, capillary-to-fiber ratio, the number of capillaries in contact with each fiber type, and the optical density of glycogen within each fiber by using histochemical procedures. Total muscle glycogen content was determined biochemically.

RESULTS

Exercise capacity measured on the incremental walking test in the PAD group was only 30% to 40% of that observed in controls. The PAD group had a lower proportion of type I muscle fibers (P < .05), fewer capillaries per muscle fiber (P < .05), and tended to have smaller fiber areas (P = .08). The relative area of type I fibers, the capillary-to-fiber ratio, capillary contacts with type I and IIa fibers, and the optical density of glycogen in type I fibers were all positively correlated with exercise tolerance in the PAD group (P < .05) but not controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that muscle phenotype is altered in PAD and that such alterations are associated with the exercise intolerance in these patients. In light of these findings, therapies such as resistance training or electrical stimulation that target skeletal muscle in PAD may prove beneficial, and further investigation of such therapies is warranted.

Metabolically assessed muscle fibre recruitment in brief isometric contractions at different intensities

This study investigated the recruitment of type I, IIA and IIAX fibres after seven isometric contractions at 40, 70 and 100% maximal voluntary knee extension torque (MVC, 1 s on/1 s off). Biopsies of the vastus lateralis muscle were collected from seven subjects at rest and immediately post-exercise. Fibre fragments were dissected from the freeze-dried samples and characterized as type I, IIA and IIAX using mATPase staining. Phosphocreatine (PCr) and creatine (Cr) content were measured in the remaining part of characterized fibres. A decline in the ratio of PCr to Cr (PCr/Cr) was used as an indication of activation. The mean peak torques were, respectively, 39 (2), 72 (2) and 87 (6)% MVC. Cumulative distributions of type I and IIA fibres were significantly shifted to lower PCr/Cr ratios at all intensities (Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, P<0.05). The cumulative distribution of type IIAX fibres showed a significant leftward shift only at 87% MVC ( P<0.05). A hierarchical order of fibre activation with increasing intensity of exercise was found, with some indication of rate coding for type I and IIA fibres. Evidence for activation of type IIAX fibres was only found at 87% MVC.

Changes in PCr/Cr ratio in single characterized muscle fibre fragments after only a few maximal voluntary contractions in humans

AIM

This methodological study investigated the number of brief maximal voluntary isometric contractions (MVC) needed to show evidence of fibre activation, as indicated by changes in the phosphocreatine to creatine (PCr/Cr) ratio.

METHODS

Subjects performed series of four, seven and/or 10 MVC (1 s on, 1 s off) of the m. quadriceps (60 degrees -flexion angle). Biopsy samples of the m. vastus lateralis were taken at rest and immediately post-exercise. Single muscle fibres were dissected from the freeze-dried samples and classified as types I, IIA or IIAX, using mATPase stainings. Fragments of characterized fibres were analysed for PCr and Cr content. Analyses of variance were performed to investigate changes in PCr/Cr per fibre group over time, followed by Bonferroni post-hoc test (P < 0.01). The fifth percentile of resting values of each fibre group was determined.

RESULTS

Mean PCr/Cr ratio after four, seven and 10 MVCs were significantly lower for all fibre groups (P < 0.01). The mean decreases were 44, 64 and 76%, respectively. However, only after seven and 10 contractions PCr/Cr ratios of all, but three type I and two type IIAX fibres, individual fibres were below the fifth percentile.

CONCLUSION

In very short duration exercise, involving seven brief maximal voluntary contractions, changes in the PCr/Cr ratio indicated activation of different characterized muscle fibre fragments. The results suggest that this approach may be useful for investigating the pattern of fibre type activation in exercise of very short duration.

Properties of medial gastrocnemius motor units and muscle fibers reinnervated by embryonic ventral spinal cord cells

Severe muscle atrophy occurs after complete denervation. Here, Embryonic Day 14-15 ventral spinal cord cells were transplanted into the distal tibial nerve stump of adult female Fischer rats to provide a source of neurons for muscle reinnervation. Our aim was to characterize the properties of the reinnervated motor units and muscle fibers. Some reinnervated motor units contracted spontaneously. Electrical stimulation of the transplants at increasing intensity produced an average (+/- SE) of 7 +/- 1 electromyographic and force steps. Each signal increment represented the excitation of another motor unit. These reinnervated units exerted an average force of 12.0 +/- 1.5 mN, strength similar to that of control fatigue-resistant units. Repeated transplant stimulation depleted 17% of the muscle fibers of glycogen, an indication of some functional reinnervation. Reinnervated (glycogen-depleted), denervated (no cells transplanted), and control fibers were of histochemical type I, IIA, or IIB. Fibers of the same type were grouped after reinnervation. The proportion of fiber types also changed. Reinnervated fibers were primarily type IIA, whereas most fibers in denervated and control muscles were type IIB. Reinnervated fibers of each type had significantly larger cross-sectional areas than the corresponding fiber types in denervated muscles. These data suggest that neurons with different properties can reside in the unusual environment of the adult rat peripheral nerve, make functional connections with muscle, specify muscle fiber type, and reduce the amount that each type atrophies.

Comparison of neuromuscular blockade and recovery with botulinum toxins A and F

Intramuscular injection of botulinum toxin A is used to treat focal dystonias. Because immunoresistance has been documented in some patients, other molecular forms of the toxin have been evaluated clinically. The present investigation compared the time course and extent of neuromuscular blockade and recovery of botulinum toxin types A and F using an electromyographic monitoring system implanted in the rat hindlimb. For a given dose, the degree and duration of blockade was more complete with type A toxin. Delayed onset of recovery in animals that received high doses of type A toxin allowed time for denervative changes to prevent a full return to baseline, as confirmed histologically. Conversely, animals receiving type F toxin fully recovered within 30 days at all dose levels. The rapid recovery with type F toxin suggested that neuromuscular transmission was restored via the original terminals rather than through functional collateral sprouting. The reversible nature of blockade with this molecular species puts in question its future clinical utility.

Absence of an effect of fatigue on muscle efficiency during high-intensity exercise in rat skeletal muscle

The effect of fatigue was studied on rat skeletal muscle efficiency during maximal dynamic exercise of 10s duration. After the initial 4s of exercise, power output decreased rapidly to 46.2 +/- 6.7% (mean +/- SD; n = 6) after 6s of stimulation and further to 17.5 +/- 5.8% in the last contraction. Both the rates of total work output and high-energy phosphate consumption decreased with increasing exercise duration. As a result muscle efficiency was not affected by exercise time in the present experiments. This result indicates that fatigue in severe maximal exercise is induced by a feed-back mechanism, which in the case of high ATP utilisation rates will reduce ATP splitting probably by reducing Ca(2+)-release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.