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Stepien EN, Galatius A, Hansen KA, Nabe-Nielsen J, Teilmann J, Wahlberg M. Response of Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra) to underwater acoustic harassment device sounds. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4988. [PMID: 38424202 PMCID: PMC10904746 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55481-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Seal scarers (or acoustic harassment devices, AHDs) are designed to deter seals from fishing gear and aquaculture operations, as well as to prevent seals from entering rivers to avoid predation on valuable fish. Our study investigated the potential effects of AHDs on non-target species, specifically the Eurasian otters (Lutra lutra), by testing the reaction of two rehabilitated otters to simulated AHDs sounds at 1 and 14 kHz, with a received sound intensity of 105-145 dB re 1 µPa rms. The 1 kHz sounds were used to investigate alternative frequencies for scaring seals without scaring otters. The otters reacted to both 1 and 14 kHz tonal signals when retrieving fish from a feeding station 0.8 m below the surface. Their diving behaviour and time to extract food progressively increased as sound intensity increased for all tested sound levels. Notably, the sound levels used in our tests were significantly lower (40-80 dB) than the source levels from commercial AHDs. These findings highlight the importance of caution when using AHDs in river and sea habitats inhabited by otters, as AHDs can change their behaviour and potentially result in habitat exclusion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anders Galatius
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Kirstin Anderson Hansen
- Marine Biological Research Centre, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Jacob Nabe-Nielsen
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jonas Teilmann
- Marine Mammal Research, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Magnus Wahlberg
- Marine Biological Research Centre, Department of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
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2
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McKeegan KA, Clayton K, Williams R, Ashe E, Reiss S, Mendez-Bye A, Janik VM, Goetz T, Zinkgraf M, Acevedo-Gutiérrez A. The effect of a startle-eliciting device on the foraging success of individual harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). Sci Rep 2024; 14:3719. [PMID: 38355948 PMCID: PMC10866881 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54175-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Pinniped predation on commercially and ecologically important prey has been a source of conflict for centuries. In the Salish Sea, harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) are suspected of impeding the recovery of culturally and ecologically critical Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.). In Fall 2020, a novel deterrent called Targeted Acoustic Startle Technology (TAST) was deployed at Whatcom Creek to deter harbor seals from preying on fall runs of hatchery chum (O. keta) and Chinook (O. tshawytscha) salmon in Bellingham, Washington, USA. Field observations were conducted in 2020 to compare the presence and foraging success of individual harbor seals across sound exposure (TAST-on) and control (TAST-off) conditions. Observations conducted the previous (2019) and following (2021) years were used to compare the effects observed in 2020 to two control years. Using photo-identification, individual seals were associated with foraging successes across all 3 years of the study. Generalized linear mixed models showed a significant 45.6% reduction in the duration (min) individuals remained at the creek with TAST on, and a significant 43.8% reduction in the overall foraging success of individuals. However, the observed effect of TAST varied across individual seals. Seals that were observed regularly within one season were more likely to return the year after, regardless of TAST treatment. Generalized linear models showed interannual variation in the number of seals present and salmon consumed. However, the effect of TAST in 2020 was greater than the observed variation across years. Our analyses suggest TAST can be an effective tool for managing pinniped predation, although alternate strategies such as deploying TAST longer-term and using multi-unit setups to increase coverage could help strengthen its effects. Future studies should further examine the individual variability found in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen A McKeegan
- Biology Department, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, 98225, USA.
- Research and Recovery Program, Skagit River System Cooperative, P.O. Box 368, La Conner, WA, 98257-0368, USA.
| | - Kate Clayton
- Biology Department, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, 98225, USA
| | - Rob Williams
- Oceans Initiative, 117 E Louisa St. #135, Seattle, WA, 98102, USA
| | - Erin Ashe
- Oceans Initiative, 117 E Louisa St. #135, Seattle, WA, 98102, USA
| | - Stephanie Reiss
- Oceans Initiative, 117 E Louisa St. #135, Seattle, WA, 98102, USA
| | | | - Vincent M Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, East Sands, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Thomas Goetz
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, East Sands, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Matthew Zinkgraf
- Biology Department, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, 98225, USA
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Elmegaard SL, Teilmann J, Rojano-Doñate L, Brennecke D, Mikkelsen L, Balle JD, Gosewinkel U, Kyhn LA, Tønnesen P, Wahlberg M, Ruser A, Siebert U, Madsen PT. Wild harbour porpoises startle and flee at low received levels from acoustic harassment device. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16691. [PMID: 37794093 PMCID: PMC10550999 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43453-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Acoustic Harassment Devices (AHD) are widely used to deter marine mammals from aquaculture depredation, and from pile driving operations that may otherwise cause hearing damage. However, little is known about the behavioural and physiological effects of these devices. Here, we investigate the physiological and behavioural responses of harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) to a commercial AHD in Danish waters. Six porpoises were tagged with suction-cup-attached DTAGs recording sound, 3D-movement, and GPS (n = 3) or electrocardiogram (n = 2). They were then exposed to AHDs for 15 min, with initial received levels (RL) ranging from 98 to 132 dB re 1 µPa (rms-fast, 125 ms) and initial exposure ranges of 0.9-7 km. All animals reacted by displaying a mixture of acoustic startle responses, fleeing, altered echolocation behaviour, and by demonstrating unusual tachycardia while diving. Moreover, during the 15-min exposures, half of the animals received cumulative sound doses close to published thresholds for temporary auditory threshold shifts. We conclude that AHD exposure at many km can evoke both startle, flight and cardiac responses which may impact blood-gas management, breath-hold capability, energy balance, stress level and risk of by-catch. We posit that current AHDs are too powerful for mitigation use to prevent hearing damage of porpoises from offshore construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siri L Elmegaard
- Zoophysiology, Dept. of Biology, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus, Denmark.
- Marine Mammal Research, Dept. of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Jonas Teilmann
- Marine Mammal Research, Dept. of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Laia Rojano-Doñate
- Zoophysiology, Dept. of Biology, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus, Denmark
- Marine Mammal Research, Dept. of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Dennis Brennecke
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 25761, Büsum, Germany
| | - Lonnie Mikkelsen
- Marine Mammal Research, Dept. of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark
- Norwegian Polar Institute, 9296, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Jeppe D Balle
- Marine Mammal Research, Dept. of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Ulrich Gosewinkel
- Environmental Microbiology, Dept. of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Line A Kyhn
- Marine Mammal Research, Dept. of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, 4000, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Pernille Tønnesen
- Zoophysiology, Dept. of Biology, Aarhus University, 8000, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Magnus Wahlberg
- Marine Biological Research Centre, Dept. of Biology, University of Southern Denmark, 5300, Kerteminde, Denmark
| | - Andreas Ruser
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 25761, Büsum, Germany
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 25761, Büsum, Germany
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Mulsow J, Schlundt CE, Strahan MG, Finneran JJ. Bottlenose dolphin temporary threshold shift following exposure to 10-ms impulses centered at 8 kHza). J Acoust Soc Am 2023; 154:1287-1298. [PMID: 37646472 DOI: 10.1121/10.0020726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Studies of marine mammal temporary threshold shift (TTS) from impulsive sources have typically produced small TTS magnitudes, likely due to much of the energy in tested sources lying below the subjects' range of best hearing. In this study of dolphin TTS, 10-ms impulses centered at 8 kHz were used with the goal of inducing larger magnitudes of TTS and assessing the time course of hearing recovery. Most impulses had sound pressure levels of 175-180 dB re 1 μPa, while inter-pulse interval (IPI) and total number of impulses were varied. Dolphin TTS increased with increasing cumulative sound exposure level (SEL) and there was no apparent effect of IPI for exposures with equal SEL. The lowest TTS onset was 184 dB re 1 μPa2s, although early exposures with 20-s IPI and cumulative SEL of 182-183 dB re 1 μPa2s produced respective TTS of 35 and 16 dB in two dolphins. Continued testing with higher SELs up to 191 dB re 1 μPa2s in one of those dolphins, however, failed to result in TTS greater than 14 dB. Recovery rates were similar to those from other studies with non-impulsive sources and depended on the magnitude of the initial TTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Mulsow
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Suite 200, San Diego, California 92106, USA
| | - Carolyn E Schlundt
- Peraton Corporation, 4045 Hancock Street, Suite 210, San Diego, California 92110, USA
| | - Madelyn G Strahan
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Drive, Suite 200, San Diego, California 92106, USA
| | - James J Finneran
- U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program, Naval Information Warfare Center Pacific Code 56710, 53560 Hull Street, San Diego, California 92152, USA
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5
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Tougaard J, Beedholm K, Madsen PT. Thresholds for noise induced hearing loss in harbor porpoises and phocid seals. J Acoust Soc Am 2022; 151:4252. [PMID: 35778178 DOI: 10.1121/10.0011560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Intense sound sources, such as pile driving, airguns, and military sonars, have the potential to inflict hearing loss in marine mammals and are, therefore, regulated in many countries. The most recent criteria for noise induced hearing loss are based on empirical data collected until 2015 and recommend frequency-weighted and species group-specific thresholds to predict the onset of temporary threshold shift (TTS). Here, evidence made available after 2015 in light of the current criteria for two functional hearing groups is reviewed. For impulsive sounds (from pile driving and air guns), there is strong support for the current threshold for very high frequency cetaceans, including harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). Less strong support also exists for the threshold for phocid seals in water, including harbor seals (Phoca vitulina). For non-impulsive sounds, there is good correspondence between exposure functions and empirical thresholds below 10 kHz for porpoises (applicable to assessment and regulation of military sonars) and between 3 and 16 kHz for seals. Above 10 kHz for porpoises and outside of the range 3-16 kHz for seals, there are substantial differences (up to 35 dB) between the predicted thresholds for TTS and empirical results. These discrepancies call for further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Tougaard
- Department of Ecoscience, Marine Mammal Research, Aarhus University, C. F. Møllers Allé 3, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
| | - Kristian Beedholm
- Department of Biology, Zoophysiology, Aarhus University, C. F. Møllers Allé 3, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
| | - Peter T Madsen
- Department of Biology, Zoophysiology, Aarhus University, C. F. Møllers Allé 3, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
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6
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Siebert U, Stürznickel J, Schaffeld T, Oheim R, Rolvien T, Prenger-Berninghoff E, Wohlsein P, Lakemeyer J, Rohner S, Aroha Schick L, Gross S, Nachtsheim D, Ewers C, Becher P, Amling M, Morell M. Blast injury on harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) from the Baltic Sea after explosions of deposits of World War II ammunition. Environ Int 2022; 159:107014. [PMID: 34883460 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.107014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Harbour porpoises are under pressure from increasing human activities. This includes the detonation of ammunition that was dumped in large amounts into the sea during and after World War II. In this context, forty-two British ground mines from World War II were cleared by means of blasting in the period from 28 to 31 August 2019 by a NATO unit in the German Exclusive Economic Zone within the marine protected area of Fehmarn Belt in the Baltic Sea, Germany. Between September and November 2019, 24 harbour porpoises were found dead in the period after those clearing events along the coastline of the federal state of Schleswig-Holstein and were investigated for direct and indirect effects of blast injury. Health evaluations were conducted including examinations of the brain, the air-filled (lungs and gastrointestinal tract) and acoustic organs (melon, acoustic fat in the lower jaw, ears and their surrounding tissues). The bone structure of the tympano-periotic complexes was examined using high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT). In 8/24 harbour porpoises, microfractures of the malleus, dislocation of middle ear bones, bleeding, and haemorrhages in the melon, lower jaw and peribullar acoustic fat were detected, suggesting blast injury. In addition, one bycaught animal and another porpoise with signs of blunt force trauma also showed evidence of blast injury. The cause of death of the other 14 animals varied and remained unclear in two individuals. Due to the vulnerability and the conservation status of harbour porpoise populations in the Baltic Sea, noise mitigation measures must be improved to prevent any risk of injury. The data presented here highlight the importance of systematic investigations into the acute and chronic effects of blast and acoustic trauma in harbour porpoises, improving the understanding of underwater noise effects and herewith develop effective measures to protect the population level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany.
| | - Julian Stürznickel
- Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Lottestr. 59, 22529 Hamburg, Germany; Department of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, Division of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tobias Schaffeld
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Ralf Oheim
- Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Lottestr. 59, 22529 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Tim Rolvien
- Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Lottestr. 59, 22529 Hamburg, Germany; Department of Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery, Division of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ellen Prenger-Berninghoff
- Institute for Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 85-87, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Peter Wohlsein
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Jan Lakemeyer
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Simon Rohner
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Luca Aroha Schick
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Stephanie Gross
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Dominik Nachtsheim
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany
| | - Christa Ewers
- Institute for Hygiene and Infectious Diseases of Animals, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Frankfurter Str. 85-87, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Paul Becher
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael Amling
- Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Lottestr. 59, 22529 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria Morell
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Werftstr. 6, 25761 Büsum, Germany
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Findlay CR, Aleynik D, Farcas A, Merchant ND, Risch D, Wilson B. Auditory impairment from acoustic seal deterrents predicted for harbour porpoises in a marine protected area. J Appl Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte R. Findlay
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) University of the Highlands and Islands Oban UK
| | - Dmitry Aleynik
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) University of the Highlands and Islands Oban UK
| | - Adrian Farcas
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) Lowestoft UK
| | - Nathan D. Merchant
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas) Lowestoft UK
| | - Denise Risch
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) University of the Highlands and Islands Oban UK
| | - Ben Wilson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS) University of the Highlands and Islands Oban UK
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Todd VLG, Williamson LD, Jiang J, Cox SE, Todd IB, Ruffert M. Prediction of marine mammal auditory-impact risk from Acoustic Deterrent Devices used in Scottish aquaculture. Mar Pollut Bull 2021; 165:112171. [PMID: 33621906 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Acoustic Deterrent Devices (ADDs) are used worldwide to deter pinnipeds from predating fish-aquaculture facilities. Desk-based noise-propagation modelling of six commercial ADD models, and a 'fictional' ADD was performed, the latter involving alternating source level, frequency, duty cycle, noise-exposure duration, and number of ADDs active simultaneously. Potential auditory impacts on marine mammals were explored using the Southall et al. (2019) criteria. Depending on operational characteristics, real ADDs were predicted to cause Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS) to Very High Frequency (VHF) cetaceans at ranges of 4-31 km, and a single fictional device operating at the highest outputs tested was predicted to cause TTS to VHF cetaceans at up to 32 km. Cumulative effects of 23 real fish-farm ADDs produced noise across large swathes of the Inner-Hebrides. The single variable causing greatest reduction in potential impact to marine mammals from fictional ADDs was SL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria L G Todd
- Ocean Science Consulting Limited, Spott Road, Dunbar, East Lothian, Scotland, EH42 1RR, UK.
| | - Laura D Williamson
- Ocean Science Consulting Limited, Spott Road, Dunbar, East Lothian, Scotland, EH42 1RR, UK.
| | - Jian Jiang
- Ocean Science Consulting Limited, Spott Road, Dunbar, East Lothian, Scotland, EH42 1RR, UK.
| | - Sophie E Cox
- Ocean Science Consulting Limited, Spott Road, Dunbar, East Lothian, Scotland, EH42 1RR, UK.
| | - Ian B Todd
- Ocean Science Consulting Limited, Spott Road, Dunbar, East Lothian, Scotland, EH42 1RR, UK.
| | - Maximilian Ruffert
- School of Mathematics & Maxwell Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, Scotland, UK.
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9
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Thomsen F, Erbe C, Hawkins A, Lepper P, Popper AN, Scholik-Schlomer A, Sisneros J. Introduction to the special issue on the effects of sound on aquatic life. J Acoust Soc Am 2020; 148:934. [PMID: 32873007 DOI: 10.1121/10.0001725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The effects of anthropogenic (man-made) underwater sound on aquatic life have become an important environmental issue. One of the focal ways to present and to share knowledge on the topic has been the international conference on The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life ("Aquatic Noise"). The conferences have brought together people from diverse interests and backgrounds to share information and ideas directed at understanding and solving the challenges of the potential effects of sound on aquatic life. The papers published here and in a related special issue of Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics present a good overview of the many topics and ideas covered at the meeting. Indeed, the growth in studies on anthropogenic sound since the first meeting in 2007 reflects the increasing use of oceans, lakes, rivers, and other waterways by humans. However, there are still very substantial knowledge gaps about the effects of sound on all aquatic animals, and these gaps lead to there being a substantial need for a better understanding of the sounds produced by various sources and how these sounds may affect animals.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christine Erbe
- Centre for Marine Science and Technology, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia 6102, Australia
| | - Anthony Hawkins
- The Aquatic Noise Trust, Kincraig, Blairs, Aberdeen, AB12 5YT, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Lepper
- Wolfson School of Mechanical, Electrical and Manufacturing Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, United Kingdom
| | - Arthur N Popper
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - Amy Scholik-Schlomer
- National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1315 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, USA
| | - Joseph Sisneros
- Departments of Psychology and Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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Abstract
The growing demand for renewable energy supply stimulates a drastic increase in the deployment rate of offshore wind energy. Offshore wind power generators are usually supported by large foundation piles that are driven into the seabed with hydraulic impact hammers or vibratory devices. The pile installation process, which is key to the construction of every new wind farm, is hindered by a serious by-product: the underwater noise pollution. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art computational methods to predict the underwater noise emission by the installation of foundation piles offshore including the available noise mitigation strategies. Future challenges in the field are identified under the prism of the ever-increasing size of wind turbines and the emerging pile driving technologies.
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