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Dimitrov IV, Suonio EEK. Syntheses of Analogues of Propofol: A Review. SYNTHESIS-STUTTGART 2020. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1707287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractPropofol (2,6-diisopropylphenol) is an intravenous sedative/hypnotic agent that is used extensively for introduction and maintenance of general anaesthesia, sedation of critically ill patients and procedural sedation (e.g., endoscopy). Propofol has a rapid onset and offset of action and shows only minimal accumulation upon prolonged use. Propofol is only sparingly soluble in water and is currently marketed in 10% soybean oil-based lipid emulsion. Propofol’s anaesthetic properties were discovered over forty years ago, and it has been in clinical use for over thirty years. The main use of propofol remains as an anaesthetic but, over the years, analogues have been developed with varying properties from anticancer, anticonvulsant and antioxidant. In addition, large synthetic efforts have been made towards improving propofol’s water-solubility, its activity, and elucidating its structure–activity relationship and exact mechanism of action have been made. This review provides an overview of the research pertaining to propofol-like molecules and covers the efforts of synthetic chemists towards propofol analogues over the last 40 years.1 Introduction2 History3 Early Work4 Improving Water Solubility5 The Importance of the Phenol6 Exploring the Structure–Activity Relationship and Attempts to Improve Activity7 Anticancer Activity8 Anticonvulsant Properties9 Antioxidant Activity10 Photoactive Labelling to Elucidate Mechanism of Action11 Photoregulation12 Conclusion
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivaylo V. Dimitrov
- Auckland Cancer Society Research Centre, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland
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Inhibition by general anesthetic propofol of compound action potentials in the frog sciatic nerve and its chemical structure. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2018; 392:359-369. [PMID: 30519707 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-018-01596-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Although the intravenous general anesthetic propofol (2,6-diisopropylphenol) has an ability to inhibit nerve conduction, this has not been fully examined. Various agents inhibit compound action potentials (CAPs) in a manner dependent on their chemical structures. To determine propofol's chemical structure that is important in nerve conduction inhibition, we examined the effects of propofol and its related compounds on fast-conducting CAPs recorded from the frog sciatic nerve by using the air-gap method. Propofol concentration-dependently reduced the peak amplitude of the CAP with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 0.14 mM. A similar inhibition was produced by other phenols, 4-sec-butylphenol and 4-amylphenol (IC50 values: 0.33 and 0.20 mM, respectively). IC50 values for these and more phenols (4-isopropylphenol, 4-tert-butylphenol, and 4-ter-amylphenol; data published previously) were correlated with the logarithm of their octanol-water partition coefficients. A phenol having ketone group (raspberry ketone) and alcohols (3-phenyl-1-propanol and 2-phenylethylalcohol) inhibited CAPs less effectively than the above-mentioned phenols. The local anesthetic (LA) benzocaine reduced CAP peak amplitudes with an IC50 of 0.80 mM, a value larger than that of propofol. When compared with other LAs, propofol activity was close to those of ropivacaine, levobupivacaine, and pramoxine, while benzocaine activity was similar to those of cocaine and lidocaine. It is concluded that propofol inhibits nerve conduction, possibly owing to isopropyl and hydroxyl groups bound to the benzene ring of propofol and to its lipophilicity; propofol's efficacy is comparable to those of some LAs. These results could serve to develop propofol-related agents exhibiting analgesia when applied topically.
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CACHD1 is an α2δ-Like Protein That Modulates Ca V3 Voltage-Gated Calcium Channel Activity. J Neurosci 2018; 38:9186-9201. [PMID: 30181139 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3572-15.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The putative cache (Ca2+ channel and chemotaxis receptor) domain containing 1 (CACHD1) protein has predicted structural similarities to members of the α2δ voltage-gated Ca2+ channel auxiliary subunit family. CACHD1 mRNA and protein were highly expressed in the male mammalian CNS, in particular in the thalamus, hippocampus, and cerebellum, with a broadly similar tissue distribution to CaV3 subunits, in particular CaV3.1. In expression studies, CACHD1 increased cell-surface localization of CaV3.1, and these proteins were in close proximity at the cell surface, consistent with the formation of CACHD1-CaV3.1 complexes. In functional electrophysiological studies, coexpression of human CACHD1 with CaV3.1, CaV3.2, and CaV3.3 caused a significant increase in peak current density and corresponding increases in maximal conductance. By contrast, α2δ-1 had no effect on peak current density or maximal conductance in CaV3.1, CaV3.2, or CaV3.3. A comparison of CACHD1-mediated increases in CaV3.1 current density and gating currents revealed an increase in channel open probability. In hippocampal neurons from male and female embryonic day 19 rats, CACHD1 overexpression increased CaV3-mediated action potential firing frequency and neuronal excitability. These data suggest that CACHD1 is structurally an α2δ-like protein that functionally modulates CaV3 voltage-gated calcium channel activity.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This is the first study to characterize the Ca2+ channel and chemotaxis receptor domain containing 1 (CACHD1) protein. CACHD1 is widely expressed in the CNS, in particular in the thalamus, hippocampus, and cerebellum. CACHD1 distribution is similar to that of low voltage-activated (CaV3, T-type) calcium channels, in particular to CaV3.1, a protein that regulates neuronal excitability and is a potential therapeutic target in conditions such as epilepsy and pain. CACHD1 is structurally an α2δ-like protein that functionally increases CaV3 calcium current. CACHD1 increases the presence of CaV3.1 at the cell surface, forms complexes with CaV3.1 at the cell surface, and causes an increase in channel open probability. In hippocampal neurons, CACHD1 causes increases in neuronal firing. Thus, CACHD1 represents a novel protein that modulates CaV3 activity.
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Murata T, Kawanishi T, Sekiguchi A, Ishikawa R, Ono K, Nakata K, Shiina I. Kinetic Resolution of Racemic 2-Hydroxyamides Using a Diphenylacetyl Component as an Acyl Source and a Chiral Acyl-Transfer Catalyst. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23082003. [PMID: 30103468 PMCID: PMC6222459 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23082003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Various optically active 2-hydroxyamide derivatives are produced based on the kinetic resolution of racemic 2-hydroxyamides with a diphenylacetyl component and (R)-benzotetramisole ((R)-BTM), a chiral acyl-transfer catalyst, via asymmetric esterification and acylation. It was revealed that a tertiary amide can be used with this novel protocol to achieve high selectivity (22 examples; s-value reaching over 250). The resulting chiral compounds could be transformed into other useful structures while maintaining their chirality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takatsugu Murata
- Department of Appliaed Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan.
| | - Tatsuya Kawanishi
- Department of Appliaed Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan.
| | - Akihiro Sekiguchi
- Department of Appliaed Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan.
| | - Ryo Ishikawa
- Department of Appliaed Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan.
| | - Keisuke Ono
- Department of Appliaed Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan.
| | - Kenya Nakata
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Shimane University, Shimane 690-8504, Japan.
| | - Isamu Shiina
- Department of Appliaed Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan.
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Kaneko K, Koyanagi Y, Oi Y, Kobayashi M. Propofol-induced spike firing suppression is more pronounced in pyramidal neurons than in fast-spiking neurons in the rat insular cortex. Neuroscience 2016; 339:548-560. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Electroencephalography of Seizure-Like Movements During General Anesthesia with Propofol. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 5:195-8. [DOI: 10.1213/xaa.0000000000000212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Kim Y, Chang S. Borane-Catalyzed Reductive α-Silylation of Conjugated Esters and Amides Leaving Carbonyl Groups Intact. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 55:218-22. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201508669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Kim Y, Chang S. Borane-Catalyzed Reductive α-Silylation of Conjugated Esters and Amides Leaving Carbonyl Groups Intact. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201508669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Cummins TR, Rush AM. Voltage-gated sodium channel blockers for the treatment of neuropathic pain. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 7:1597-612. [DOI: 10.1586/14737175.7.11.1597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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GABAA receptors involved in sleep and anaesthesia: β1- versus β3-containing assemblies. Pflugers Arch 2011; 463:187-99. [PMID: 21735059 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-011-0988-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2011] [Revised: 06/06/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The histaminergic neurons of the posterior hypothalamus (tuberomamillary nucleus-TMN) control wakefulness, and their silencing through activation of GABA(A) receptors (GABA(A)R) induces sleep and is thought to mediate sedation under propofol anaesthesia. We have previously shown that the β1 subunit preferring fragrant dioxane derivatives (FDD) are highly potent modulators of GABA(A)R in TMN neurons. In recombinant receptors containing the β3N265M subunit, FDD action is abolished and GABA potency is reduced. Using rat, wild-type and β3N265M mice, FDD and propofol, we explored the relative contributions of β1- and β3-containing GABA(A)R to synaptic transmission from the GABAergic sleep-on ventrolateral preoptic area neurons to TMN. In β3N265M mice, GABA potency remained unchanged in TMN neurons, but it was decreased in cultured posterior hypothalamic neurons with impaired modulation of GABA(A)R by propofol. Spontaneous and evoked GABAergic synaptic currents (IPSC) showed β1-type pharmacology, with the same effects achieved by 3 μM propofol and 10 μM PI24513. Propofol and the FDD PI24513 suppressed neuronal firing in the majority of neurons at 5 and 100 μM, and in all cells at 10 and 250 μM, respectively. FDD given systemically in mice induced sedation but not anaesthesia. Propofol-induced currents were abolished (1-6 μM) or significantly reduced (12 μM) in β3N265M mice, whereas gating and modulation of GABA(A)R by PI24513 as well as modulation by propofol were unchanged. In conclusion, β1-containing (FDD-sensitive) GABA(A)R represent the major receptor pool in TMN neurons responding to GABA, while β3-containing (FDD-insensitive) receptors are gated by low micromolar doses of propofol. Thus, sleep and anaesthesia depend on different GABA(A)R types.
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Effects of propofol and pentobarbital on calcium concentration in presynaptic boutons on a rat hippocampal neuron. J Anesth 2011; 25:727-33. [DOI: 10.1007/s00540-011-1186-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Baker MT. The Anticonvulsant Effects of Propofol and a Propofol Analog, 2,6-Diisopropyl-4-(1-Hydroxy-2,2,2-Trifluoroethyl)Phenol, in a 6 Hz Partial Seizure Model. Anesth Analg 2011; 112:340-4. [DOI: 10.1213/ane.0b013e3182025b30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Tesoro EP, Brophy GM. Pharmacological management of seizures and status epilepticus in critically ill patients. J Pharm Pract 2010; 23:441-54. [PMID: 21507848 DOI: 10.1177/0897190010372321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Seizures are serious complications seen in critically ill patients and can lead to significant morbidity and mortality if the cause is not identified and treated quickly. Uncontrolled seizures can lead to status epilepticus (SE), which is considered a medical emergency. The first-line treatment of seizures is an intravenous (IV) benzodiazepine followed by anticonvulsant therapy. Refractory SE can evolve into a nonconvulsive state requiring IV anesthetics or induction of pharmacological coma. To prevent seizures and further complications in critically ill patients with acute neurological disease or injury, short-term seizure prophylaxis should be considered in certain patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eljim P Tesoro
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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Jones PJ, Merrick EC, Batts TW, Hargus NJ, Wang Y, Stables JP, Bertram EH, Brown ML, Patel MK. Modulation of sodium channel inactivation gating by a novel lactam: implications for seizure suppression in chronic limbic epilepsy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008; 328:201-12. [PMID: 18952887 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.108.144709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy remains a devastating neurological disorder associated with recurrent, unprovoked, spontaneous epileptic seizures. Current treatments involve seizure suppression using antiepileptic drugs (AEDs); however, many patients remain refractory to current treatments or suffer serious side effects. In view of this continued need for more effective and safer AEDs, we have designed a novel compound, 3-hydroxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-methyl-1,3-dihydro-indol-2-one (YWI92), based on a lactam structural class, and evaluated its modulation of human neuronal sodium channel isoform (hNa(v))1.2 currents and hippocampal neuron action potential firing. Furthermore, we have tested its AED activity using a chronic and acute rat seizure model. In a similar manner to lamotrigine, a clinically used AED, YWI92 exhibited tonic block of hNa(v)1.2 channels and caused a hyperpolarizing shift in the steady-state inactivation curve when using a 30-s inactivating prepulse. YWI92 also delayed the time constants of channel repriming after a 30-s inactivating prepulse and exhibited use-dependent block at 20-Hz stimulation frequency. In membrane excitability experiments, YWI92 inhibited burst firing in CA1 neurons of animals with temporal lobe epilepsy at concentrations that had little effect on CA1 neurons from control animals. These actions on neuronal activity translated into AED activity in the maximal electroshock acute seizure model (ED(50) = 22.96 mg/kg), and importantly, in a chronic temporal lobe epilepsy model, in which the mean number of seizures was reduced. Notably, YWI92 exhibited no sedative/ataxic side effects at concentrations up to 500 mg/kg. In summary, greater affinity for inactivated sodium channels, particularly after long depolarizing prepulses, may be important for both anticonvulsant activity and drug tolerability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulianda J Jones
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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McDougall SJ, Bailey TW, Mendelowitz D, Andresen MC. Propofol enhances both tonic and phasic inhibitory currents in second-order neurons of the solitary tract nucleus (NTS). Neuropharmacology 2007; 54:552-63. [PMID: 18082229 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2007] [Revised: 10/26/2007] [Accepted: 11/04/2007] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The anesthetic propofol is thought to induce rapid hypnotic sedation by facilitating a GABAergic tonic current in forebrain neurons. The depression of cardiovascular and respiratory regulation often observed during propofol suggests potential additional actions within the brainstem. Here we determined the impacts of propofol on both GABAergic and glutamatergic synaptic mechanisms in a class of solitary tract nucleus (NTS) neurons common to brainstem reflex pathways. In horizontal brainstem slices, we recorded from NTS neurons directly activated by solitary tract (ST) axons. We identified these second-order NTS neurons by time-invariant ("jitter"<200 micros), "all-or-none" glutamatergic excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in response to shocks to the ST. In order to assess propofol actions, we measured ST-evoked, spontaneous and miniature EPSCs and inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) during propofol exposure. Propofol prolonged miniature IPSC decay time constants by 50% above control at 1.8 microM. Low concentrations of gabazine (SR-95531) blocked phasic GABA currents. At higher concentrations, propofol (30 microM) induced a gabazine-insensitive tonic current that was blocked by picrotoxin or bicuculline. In contrast, total propofol concentrations up to 30 microM had no effect on EPSCs. Thus, propofol enhanced phasic GABA events in NTS at lower concentrations than tonic current induction, opposite to the relative sensitivity observed in forebrain regions. These data suggest that therapeutic levels of propofol facilitate phasic (synaptic) inhibitory transmission in second-order NTS neurons which likely inhibits autonomic reflex pathways during anesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart J McDougall
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology L334, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland OR 97239-3098, USA.
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