Activation of muscarinic cholinergic receptors on human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells enhances both the influx and efflux of K+ under conditions of hypo-osmolarity

Quinolinic acid induces neuritogenesis in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells independently of NMDA receptor activation

Glutamate and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺ ) have been implicated in neuronal development and several types of cancer. The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism includes quinolinic acid (QA) which is both a selective agonist at N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors and also a precursor for the formation of NAD⁺ . The effect of QA on cell survival and differentiation has therefore been examined on SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Retinoic acid (RA, 10 μm) induced differentiation of SH-SY5Y cells into a neuronal phenotype showing neurite growth. QA (50-150 nm) also caused a concentration-dependent increase in the neurite/soma ratio, indicating differentiation. Both RA and QA increased expression of the neuronal marker β3-tubulin in whole-cell homogenates and in the neuritic fraction assessed using a neurite outgrowth assay. Expression of the neuronal proliferation marker doublecortin revealed that, unlike RA, QA did not decrease the number of mitotic cells. QA-induced neuritogenesis coincided with an increase in the generation of reactive oxygen species. Neuritogenesis was prevented by diphenylene-iodonium (an inhibitor of NADPH oxidase) and superoxide dismutase, supporting the involvement of reactive oxygen species. NMDA itself did not promote neuritogenesis and the NMDA antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801) did not prevent quinolinate-induced neuritogenesis, indicating that the effects of QA were independent of NMDA receptors. Nicotinamide caused a significant increase in the neurite/soma ratio and the expression of β3-tubulin in the neuritic fraction. Taken together, these results suggest that QA induces neuritogenesis by promoting oxidizing conditions and affecting the availability of NAD⁺ , independently of NMDA receptors.

Receptor regulation of osmolyte homeostasis in neural cells

The capacity of cells to correct their volume in response to hyposmotic stress via the efflux of inorganic and organic osmolytes is well documented. However, the ability of cell-surface receptors, in particular G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), to regulate this homeostatic mechanism has received much less attention. Mechanisms that underlie the regulation of cell volume are of particular importance to cells in the central nervous system because of the physical restrictions of the skull and the adverse impact that even small increases in cell volume can have on their function. Increases in brain volume are seen in hyponatraemia, which can arise from a variety of aetiologies and is the most frequently diagnosed electrolyte disorder in clinical practice. In this review we summarize recent evidence that the activation of GPCRs facilitates the volume-dependent efflux of osmolytes from neural cells and permits them to more efficiently respond to small, physiologically relevant, reductions in osmolarity. The characteristics of receptor-regulated osmolyte efflux, the signalling pathways involved and the physiological significance of receptor activation are discussed. In addition, we propose that GPCRs may also regulate the re-uptake of osmolytes into neural cells, but that the influx of organic and inorganic osmolytes is differentially regulated. The ability of neural cells to closely regulate osmolyte homeostasis through receptor-mediated alterations in both efflux and influx mechanisms may explain, in part at least, why the brain selectively retains its complement of inorganic osmolytes during chronic hyponatraemia, whereas its organic osmolytes are depleted.

Muscarinic receptor stimulation of D-aspartate uptake into human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells is attenuated by hypoosmolarity

In addition to its function as an excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate plays a major role as an osmolyte within the central nervous system (CNS). Accordingly, mechanisms that regulate glutamate release and uptake are of physiological importance not only during conditions in which cell volume remains constant but also when cells are subjected to hypoosmotic stress. In the present study, the ability of muscarinic cholinergic receptors (mAChRs) to regulate the uptake of glutamate (monitored as D-aspartate) into human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells under isotonic or hypotonic conditions has been examined. In isotonic media, agonist activation of mAChRs resulted in a significant increase (250-300% of control) in the uptake of D-aspartate and, concurrently, a cellular redistribution of the excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3) to the plasma membrane. mAChR-mediated increases in d-aspartate uptake were potently blocked by the EAAT3 inhibitor l-beta-threo-benzyl-aspartate. In hypotonic media, the ability of mAChR activation to facilitate D-aspartate uptake was significantly attenuated (40-50%), and the cellular distribution of EAAT3 was disrupted. Reduction of mAChR-stimulated D-aspartate uptake under hypoosmotic conditions could be fully reversed upon re-exposure of the cells to isotonic media. Under both isotonic and hypotonic conditions, mAChR-mediated increases in D-aspartate uptake depended on cytoskeletal integrity, protein kinase C and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase activities, and the availability of intracellular Ca2+. In contrast, dependence on extracellular Ca2+ was observed only under isotonic conditions. The results suggest that, although the uptake of D-aspartate into SH-SY5Y cells is enhanced after mAChR activation, this process is markedly attenuated by hypoosmolarity.

Muscarinic receptor regulation of osmosensitive taurine transport in human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells

The ability of G protein-coupled receptors to regulate osmosensitive uptake of the organic osmolyte, taurine, into human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells has been examined. When monitored under isotonic conditions and in the presence of physiologically relevant taurine concentrations (1-100 microM), taurine influx was mediated exclusively by a Na(+)-dependent, high-affinity (K(m) = 2.5 microM) saturable transport mechanism (V(max) = 0.087 nmol/mg protein/min). Reductions in osmolarity of > 20% (attained under conditions of a constant NaCl concentration) resulted in an inhibition of taurine influx (> 30%) that could be attributed to a reduction in V(max), whereas the K(m) for uptake remained unchanged. Inclusion of the muscarinic cholinergic agonist, oxotremorine-M (Oxo-M), also resulted in an attenuation of taurine influx (EC(50) approximately 0.7 microM). Although Oxo-M-mediated inhibition of taurine uptake could be observed under isotonic conditions (approximately 25-30%), the magnitude of inhibition was significantly enhanced by hypotonicity (approximately 55-60%), a result that also reflected a reduction in the V(max), but not the K(m), for taurine transport. Oxo-M-mediated inhibition of taurine uptake was dependent upon the availability of extracellular Ca(2+) but was independent of protein kinase C activity. In addition to Oxo-M, inclusion of either thrombin or sphingosine 1-phosphate also attenuated volume-dependent taurine uptake. The ability of Oxo-M to inhibit the influx of taurine was attenuated by 4-[(2-butyl-6,7-dichloro-2-cyclopentyl-2,3-dihydro-1-oxo-1H-inden-5-yl)oxy]butanoic acid, an inhibitor of the volume-sensitive organic osmolyte and anion channel. 4-[(2-Butyl-6,7-dichloro-2-cyclopentyl-2,3-dihydro-1-oxo-1H-inden-5-yl)oxy]butanoic acid also prevented receptor-mediated changes in the efflux and influx of K(+) under hypoosmotic conditions. The results suggest that muscarinic receptor activation can regulate both the volume-dependent efflux and uptake of taurine and that these events may be functionally coupled.

Volume-dependent osmolyte efflux from neural tissues: regulation by G-protein-coupled receptors

The CNS is particularly vulnerable to reductions in plasma osmolarity, such as occur during hyponatremia, the most commonly encountered electrolyte disorder in clinical practice. In response to a lowered plasma osmolarity, neural cells initially swell but then are able to restore their original volume through the release of osmolytes, both inorganic and organic, and the exit of osmotically obligated water. Given the importance of the maintenance of cell volume within the CNS, mechanisms underlying the release of osmolytes assume major significance. In this context, we review recent evidence obtained from our laboratory and others that indicates that the activation of specific G-protein-coupled receptors can markedly enhance the volume-dependent release of osmolytes from neural cells. Of particular significance is the observation that receptor activation significantly lowers the osmotic threshold at which osmolyte release occurs, thereby facilitating the ability of the cells to respond to small, more physiologically relevant, reductions in osmolarity. The mechanisms underlying G-protein-coupled receptor-mediated osmolyte release and the possibility that this efflux can result in both physiologically beneficial and potentially harmful pathophysiological consequences are discussed.

Activation of muscarinic cholinergic receptors on human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells enhances both the influx and efflux of K+ under conditions of hypo-osmolarity

The ability of receptor activation to regulate osmosensitive K+ fluxes (monitored as 86Rb+) in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma has been examined. Incubation of SH-SY5Y cells in buffers rendered increasingly hypotonic by a reduction in NaCl concentration resulted in an enhanced basal efflux of Rb+ (threshold of release, 200 mOsM) but had no effect on Rb(+) influx. Addition of the muscarinic cholinergic agonist, oxotremorine-M (Oxo-M), potently enhanced Rb+ efflux (EC50 = 0.45 microM) and increased the threshold of release to 280 mOsM. Oxo-M elicited a similarly potent, but osmolarity-independent, enhancement of Rb+ influx (EC50 = 1.35 microM). However, when incubated under hypotonic conditions in which osmolarity was varied by the addition of sucrose to a fixed concentration of NaCl, basal- and Oxo-M-stimulated Rb+ influx and efflux were demonstrated to be dependent upon osmolarity. Basal- and Oxo-M-stimulated Rb+ influx (but not Rb+ efflux) were inhibited by inclusion of ouabain or furosemide. Both Rb+ influx and efflux were inhibited by removal of intracellular Ca2+ and inhibition of protein kinase C activity. In addition to Oxo-M, agonists acting at other cell surface receptors previously implicated in organic osmolyte release enhanced both Rb+ efflux and influx under hypotonic conditions. Oxo-M had no effect on cellular K+ concentration in SH-SY5Y cells under physiologically relevant reductions in osmolarity (0-15%) unless K+ influx was blocked. Thus, although receptor activation enhances the osmosensitive efflux of K+, it also stimulates K+ influx, and the latter permits retention of K+ by the cells.