Positive allosteric modulators differentially affect full versus partial agonist activation of the glycine receptor

Single Channel Analysis of Isoflurane and Ethanol Enhancement of Taurine-Activated Glycine Receptors

The amino acid taurine is an endogenous ligand acting on glycine receptors (GlyRs), which is released by astrocytes in many brain regions, such as the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex. Taurine is a partial agonist with an efficacy significantly lower than that of glycine. Allosteric modulators such as ethanol and isoflurane produce leftward shifts of glycine concentration-response curves but have no effects at saturating glycine concentrations. In contrast, in whole-cell electrophysiology studies these modulators increase the effects of saturating taurine concentrations. A number of possible mechanisms may explain these enhancing effects, including modulator effects on conductance, channel open times, or channel closed times. We used outside-out patch-clamp single channel electrophysiology to investigate the mechanism of action of 200 mM ethanol and 0.55 mM isoflurane in enhancing the effects of a saturating concentration of taurine. Neither modulator enhanced taurine-mediated conductance. Isoflurane increased the probability of channel opening. Isoflurane also increased the lifetimes of the two shortest open dwell times while both agents decreased the likelihood of occurrence of the longest-lived intracluster channel-closing events. The mechanism of enhancement of GlyR functioning by these modulators is dependent on the efficacy of the agonist activating the receptor and the concentration of agonist tested.

Identification and characterization of heptapeptide modulators of the glycine receptor

The glycine receptor is a member of the Cys-loop receptor superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels and is implicated as a possible therapeutic target for the treatment of diseases such as alcoholism and inflammatory pain. In humans, four glycine receptor subtypes (α1, α2, α3, and β) co-assemble to form pentameric channel proteins as either α homomers or αβ heteromers. To date, few agents have been identified that can selectively modulate the glycine receptor, especially those possessing subtype specificity. We used a cell-based method of phage display panning, coupled with two-electrode voltage-clamp electrophysiology in Xenopus laevis oocytes, to identify novel heptapeptide modulators of the α1β glycine receptor. This involved a panning procedure in which the phage library initially underwent subtractive panning against Human Embryonic Kidney (HEK) 293 cells expressing alternative glycine receptor subtypes before panning the remaining library over HEK 293 cells expressing the target, the α1β glycine receptor. Peptides were identified that act with selectivity on α1β and α3β, compared to α2β, glycine receptors. In addition, peptide activity at the glycine receptor decreased when zinc was chelated by tricine, similar to previous observations of a decrease in ethanol's enhancing actions at the receptor in the absence of zinc. Comparisons of the amino acid sequences of heptapeptides capable of potentiating glycine receptor function revealed several consensus sequences that may be predictive of a peptide's enhancing ability.

Allosteric modulation of the glycine receptor activated by agonists differing in efficacy

The glycine receptor (GlyR) is the predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter receptor in the brainstem and spinal cord but is also found in higher brain regions. GlyR function is affected by a variety of allosteric modulators including drugs of abuse, such as ethanol and inhalants and the ubiquitous divalent cation zinc. Two-electrode voltage-clamp experiments were conducted on Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing wild-type α1 homomeric glycine receptors to compare the degree of enhancement produced by zinc on GlyR activated by two agonists (glycine vs. taurine) that vary markedly in their efficacies. Zinc potentiation of both glycine- and taurine-evoked currents was the same at the concentrations of agonists that produced the same currents, corresponding to 6% of the maximal effect of glycine compared to 23% of the maximal effect of taurine. Similar results were seen with 50 and 200 mM ethanol. A direct comparison of agonist concentration-response curves showed that zinc enhancement was greater, overall, for taurine-activated than glycine-activated receptors. In addition, zinc only enhanced taurine- but not glycine-activated GlyR when agonists were applied at saturating concentrations. These data suggest that zinc affects taurine affinity, as well as the probability of channel opening at sub-maximal taurine concentrations, and that the magnitude of allosteric modulation at the GlyR depends on the efficacy of the agonist tested. This has implications for mutagenesis studies in which changes in the degree of allosteric modulation observed may result from mutation-induced changes in agonist efficacy.

Intermediate closed state for glycine receptor function revealed by cysteine cross-linking

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs) mediate signal transmission by coupling the binding of extracellular ligands to the opening of their ion channel. Agonist binding elicits activation and desensitization of pLGICs, through several conformational states, that are, thus far, incompletely characterized at the structural level. We previously reported for GLIC, a prokaryotic pLGIC, that cross-linking of a pair of cysteines at both sides of the extracellular and transmembrane domain interface stabilizes a locally closed (LC) X-ray structure. Here, we introduced the homologous pair of cysteines on the human α1 glycine receptor. We show by electrophysiology that cysteine cross-linking produces a gain-of-function phenotype characterized by concomitant constitutive openings, increased agonist potency, and equalization of efficacies of full and partial agonists. However, it also produces a reduction of maximal currents at saturating agonist concentrations without change of the unitary channel conductance, an effect reversed by the positive allosteric modulator propofol. The cross-linking thus favors a unique closed state distinct from the resting and longest-lived desensitized states. Fitting the data according to a three-state allosteric model suggests that it could correspond to a LC conformation. Its plausible assignment to a gating intermediate or a fast-desensitized state is discussed. Overall, our data show that relative movement of two loops at the extracellular-transmembrane interface accompanies orthosteric agonist-mediated gating.

Physiological concentrations of zinc reduce taurine-activated GlyR responses to drugs of abuse

Taurine is an endogenous ligand acting on glycine receptors in many brain regions, including the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and nucleus accumbens (nAcc). These areas also contain low concentrations of zinc, which is known to potentiate glycine receptor responses. Despite an increasing awareness of the role of the glycine receptor in the rewarding properties of drugs of abuse, the possible interactions of these compounds with zinc has not been thoroughly addressed. Two-electrode voltage-clamp electrophysiological experiments were performed on α1, α2 α1β and α2β glycine receptors expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. The effects of zinc alone, and zinc in combination with other positive modulators on the glycine receptor, were investigated when activated by the full agonist glycine versus the partial agonist taurine. Low concentrations of zinc enhanced responses of maximally-effective concentrations of taurine but not glycine. Likewise, chelation of zinc from buffers decreased responses of taurine- but not glycine-mediated currents. Potentiating concentrations of zinc decreased ethanol, isoflurane, and toluene enhancement of maximal taurine currents with no effects on maximal glycine currents. Our findings suggest that the concurrence of high concentrations of taurine and low concentrations of zinc attenuate the effects of additional modulators on the glycine receptor, and that these conditions are more representative of in vivo functioning than effects seen when these modulators are applied in isolation.