Leaping liquid crystal elastomers

Intrinsically Photothermal-Driven and Reconfigurable Liquid Crystal Elastomer Actuators Enabled by Multifunctional Dynamic Covalent Organic Photothermal Molecules

Intrinsically photothermal-responsive soft actuators possessing reconfigurability have attracted great attention due to their ability to change their actuation mode to satisfy diverse practical applications. However, challenges remain in designing and fabricating organic photothermal molecules featuring polymerizable or cross-linkable groups, especially those with multifunctional properties. Here, a novel class of versatile light-driven reconfigurable liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) materials, denoted as PUOLCE, has been developed. The multifunctional dynamic covalent organic photothermal molecules, serving as chain extenders, photothermal agents, and dynamic covalent bond precursors, are chemically bonded into LCEs, thereby endowing the LCEs with photothermal-responsiveness and dynamic properties. The intrinsic photothermal effect of PUOLCE allows the exchange reaction of dynamic oxime-carbamate bonds to undergo rapid welding under near-infrared (NIR) light. Leveraging the NIR-assisted welding strategy, the PUOLCE-based building units are capable of assembling into various complex actuators with new deformation modes. Besides, the assembled actuators can be easily reconfigured to perform different mechanical tasks (e.g., flower blooming, grasping objects, and elevating objects) under NIR illumination. Furthermore, the PUOLCE actuators can be controlled globally or locally for light-driven locomotion by controlling the area exposed to the NIR irradiation. This work provides insights into the development of adaptive soft actuators with tunable shape-morphing capabilities.

An autonomous snapper featuring adaptive actuation and embodied intelligence

Developing artificial systems with autonomous motion is essential for creating devices that emulate nature's adaptive mechanisms. Here, we introduce a light-driven liquid crystalline network snapper that integrates both sensing and actuation capabilities, enabling adaptive responses to environmental conditions. Under constant light illumination, the snapper undergoes spontaneous snap-through transformation driven by the elastic instability embedded within the material. The snapper achieves out-of-equilibrium motion through continuous energy transfer with the environment, enabling it to sustain dynamic, reversible cycles of snapping without external control. We demonstrate the ability of the liquid crystalline network snapper to detect environmental changes-such as shifts in temperature, surface roughness, and color-demonstrating a form of embodied intelligence. This work offers a distinctive strategy for designing biomimetic devices that merge embodied intelligence with autonomous motion, opening pathways for advanced, adaptive systems for soft robotics.

Facile Integration of Bacterial Cellulose with Liquid Crystal Elastomers Enables Robust Biomimetic Helical Yarn Actuators

Inspired from helical structures in nature, liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) fiber actuators are developed for soft robotics and smart wearables. However, the facile development of robust LCE yarn actuators remains challenging due to the lightly cross-linked networks of LCE with the inherently poor mechanical properties. Here, the bionic helical yarn actuator is constructed through integrating the shape-morphing LCE fiber as the actuation phase and the highly ordered orientation biomass bacterial cellulose (BC) macrofibers as the reinforcement phase by a facile twisting and two-step cross-linking strategy. Thanks to the 3D nanofiber network inside BC macrofibers and biomimetic helical structure, the mechanical strength (43.9 MPa) and the creep phenomenon of the resulted yarn have been significantly improved, which are obviously better than the reported LCE fiber actuators (1.4-30.8 MPa). The designed LCE/BC helical yarn actuators demonstrate high work capacity (304.1 J kg-1) and reliable reusability. As a proof-of-concept, this work constructs micro rolling device with customizable speed, soft gripper for grasping and moving heavy objects and passive micro motor with a speed of 7.7 rad s-1. The findings of this work are expected to provide insights into the development of high-performance and durable smart yarn actuators through biomimetic engineering strategies.

Embedded Physical Intelligence in Liquid Crystalline Polymer Actuators and Robots

Responsive materials possess the inherent capacity to autonomously sense and respond to various external stimuli, demonstrating physical intelligence. Among the diverse array of responsive materials, liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) stand out for their remarkable reversible stimuli-responsive shape-morphing properties and their potential for creating soft robots. While numerous reviews have extensively detailed the progress in developing LCP-based actuators and robots, there exists a need for comprehensive summaries that elucidate the underlying principles governing actuation and how physical intelligence is embedded within these systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in developing actuators and robots endowed with physical intelligence using LCPs. This review is structured around the stimulus conditions and categorizes the studies involving responsive LCPs based on the fundamental control and stimulation logic and approach. Specifically, three main categories are examined: systems that respond to changing stimuli, those operating under constant stimuli, and those equip with learning and logic control capabilities. Furthermore, the persisting challenges that need to be addressed are outlined and discuss the future avenues of research in this dynamic field.

13C CSA Tensors and Orientational Order of Model and Dimer Mesogens Comprising of Phenyl Benzoate

A Model mesogen and its symmetrical Dimer made up of phenyl benzoate core unit are investigated by 13C NMR spectroscopy. The existence of layer order in smectic A and smectic C phases of Dimer mesogen is established by powder X-ray diffraction. The chemical shift anisotropy (CSA) tensors of Model mesogen are determined by 2D separation of undistorted powder patterns by effortless recoupling (SUPER) experiment and are utilized for calculating the order parameters employing the alignment-induced chemical shifts (AIS). Additionally, 2D separated local field (SLF) NMR is availed for extracting 13C-1H dipolar couplings for both mesogens and used for computing the order parameters. A good agreement in the order parameters calculated from 13C-1H dipolar couplings and AIS is observed. Accordingly, the main order parameter (Szz) for the phenyl rings of the Model mesogen is found to be in the range 0.54-0.82, and for the Dimer mesogen, the values span 0.64-0.82 across mesophases. Since the phenyl benzoate core unit is frequently employed structural moiety for constructing the main chain as well as side chain liquid crystalline polymers and liquid crystalline elastomers, the CSA tensors reported here will be of immense utility for the structural characterization of these materials.

Self-Oscillation of Liquid Crystal Elastomer Fiber-Slide System Driven by Self-Flickering Light Source

Self-oscillation, a control approach inspired by biological systems, demonstrates an autonomous, continuous, and regular response to constant external environmental stimuli. Until now, most self-oscillation systems have relied on a static external environment that continuously supplies energy, while materials typically absorb ambient energy only intermittently. In this article, we propose an innovative self-oscillation of liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) fiber-slide system driven by a self-flickering light source, which can efficiently regulate the energy input in sync with the self-oscillating behavior under constant voltage. This system primarily consists of a photo-responsive LCE fiber, a slider that includes a conductive segment and an insulating segment, a light source, and a conductive track. Using the dynamic LCE model, we derive the governing equation for the motion of the LCE fiber-slider system. Numerical simulations show that the LCE fiber-slide system under constant voltage exhibits two distinct motion phases, namely the stationary phase and the self-oscillation phase. The self-oscillation occurs due to the photo-induced contraction of the LCE fiber when the light source is activated. We also investigate the critical conditions required to initiate self-oscillation, and examine key system parameters influencing its frequency and amplitude. Unlike the continuous energy release from the static environmental field in most self-oscillation systems, our LCE fiber-slide self-oscillation system is driven by a self-flickering light source, which dynamically adjusts the energy input under a constant voltage to synchronize with the self-oscillating behavior. Our design features advantages such as spontaneous periodic lighting, a simple structure, energy efficiency, and ease of operation. It shows significant promise for dynamic circuit systems, monitoring devices, and optical applications.

Fluorescent robust photoactuator via photo-crosslinking induced single-layered janus polyimide

Advanced smart polymer materials with the ability of reversible deformation under external stimuli hold great potential in robotics, soft machines, and flexible electronics. However, the complexity and low efficiency for fabricating actuators along with their limited functionality hinder further progress. Here an efficient and mild catalyst-free thiol-yne click polymerization was developed to fabricate photosensitive polyimide (PI) films. Then the fluorescent robust photoactuators with single-layered janus structure were directly obtained via UV assisted photo-crosslinking of the films, exhibiting reversible response driven by a pronounced mismatch in expansion between the front and back sides of the films. Achieving selective, non-uniform spatial distribution within the PI films, rapid and reversible complex morphing of the actuators, along with the capabilities for encrypting, reading, and erasing fluorescent information-all through the use of a single UV light source-becomes straightforward. The robust mechanical property and driving ability of these actuators enable the conversion of light energy into obvious motion even under heavy loads and the leaping through the storage and release of energy, ensuring their potential for practical applications that require durability and reliability.

A Self-Oscillator Based on Liquid Crystal Elastomer Fiber Under Constant Voltage

Self-oscillation is the phenomenon in which a system generates spontaneous, consistent periodic motion in response to a steady external stimulus, making it highly suitable for applications in soft robotics, motors, and mechatronic devices. In this paper, we present a self-oscillator based on liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) fiber under constant voltage. The system primarily consists of an LCE-liquid metal (LCE-LM) composite fiber, a metal mass sphere, and a straight rod featuring both conductive and insulating segments. Building upon an established dynamic LCE model, we derive the governing dynamic equations. Numerical calculations reveal two distinct motion regimes: a static regime and a self-oscillation regime. Furthermore, we provide the temporal behavior curves of electrothermal-induced contraction and tensile force, the phase trajectories variation curves of the equivalent driving force and damping force. These detailed studies elucidate that self-oscillation results from the contraction of the electrothermal-responsive LCE-LM fiber when the circuit is activated, with continuous periodic motion being sustained through the interplay between the metal mass sphere and a self-controlled dynamic circuit. We also investigate the threshold conditions necessary for initiating self-oscillation, as well as the key system parameters that influence its frequency and amplitude. Our self-oscillator demonstrates improved stability by reducing the effects of gravity and other disturbances. Additionally, the curved trajectory of the mass sphere can be achieved by replacing the straight rod with a curved one, resulting in a more flexible and easily controllable structure. Given these characteristics, a self-oscillator system based on LCE-LM fiber may be ideal for creating monitoring and warning devices, dynamic circuit systems, and for integrating actuators and controllers.

Metal-Ligand Bonds Based Reprogrammable and Re-Processable Supramolecular Liquid Crystal Elastomer Network

Dynamic covalent bonds endow liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) with network rearrangeability, facilitating the fixation of mesogen alignment induced by external forces and enabling reversible actuation. In comparison, the bond exchange of supramolecular interactions is typically too significant to stably maintain the programmed alignment, particularly under intensified external stimuli. Nevertheless, remaking and recycling of supramolecular interaction-based polymer networks are more accessible than those based on dynamic covalent bonds, as the latter are difficult to completely dissociate. Thus, preparing an LCE that possesses both supramolecular-like exchangeability and covalent bond-level stability remains a significant challenge. In this work, we addressed this issue by employing metal-ligand bonds as the crosslinking points of LCE networks. As such, mesogen alignment can be repeatedly encoded through metal-ligand bond exchange and stably maintained after programming, since the bond exchange rate is sufficiently slow when the programming and actuation temperatures are below the bond dissociation temperature. More importantly, the metal-ligand bonds can be completely dissociated at high temperatures, allowing the LCE network to be dissolved in a solvent and reshaped into desired geometries via solution casting. Building on these properties, our LCEs can be fabricated into versatile actuators, such as reversible folding origami, artificial muscles, and soft robotics.

Fast-Curing of Liquid Crystal Thermosets Enabled by End-Groups Regulation and In Situ Monitoring by Triboelectric Spectroscopy

The development of high-performance polymer is crucial for the fabrication of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) used in extreme conditions. Liquid crystal polyarylate thermosets (LCTs) demonstrate great potential as triboelectric material by virtue of exceptional comprehensive properties. However, there are only a few specific end-groups like phenylethynyl matching the LCT polycondensation temperature (above 300 °C). Moreover, the excellent properties of LCTs rely on the crosslinked network formed with long curing time at high temperature, restricting their further application in triboelectric material. Herein, a fast-curing LCT is designed by terminating with 4-maleimidophenol possessing appropriate reactivity. The resultant LCT (MA-LC-MA) exhibits much lower polycondensation temperature (250-270 °C) and curing temperature of 300 °C within only 1 min compared to typical LCTs (cured at 370 °C for 1 h). Furthermore, the cured MA-LC-MA retains a high glass transition temperature of 135 °C, storage modulus of 6 MPa even at 350 °C, and great electrical output performance. Additionally, triboelectric measurement related to the dielectric properties that vary with crosslinked network is innovatively utilized as an analysis technique of curing progress. This work provides a new strategy to design high-performance TENGs and promotes the development of next generation thermosets in extreme conditions.

Structure-Property Relationships in Auxetic Liquid Crystal Elastomers-The Effect of Spacer Length

Auxetics are materials displaying a negative Poisson's ratio, i.e., getting thicker in one or both transverse axes when subject to strain. In 2018, liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) displaying auxetic behaviour, achieved via a biaxial reorientation, were first reported. Studies have since focused on determining the physics underpinning the auxetic response, with investigations into structure-property relationships within these systems so far overlooked. Herein, we report the first structure-property relationships in auxetic LCEs, examining the effect of changes to the length of the spacer chain. We demonstrate that for LCEs with between six and four carbons in the spacer, an auxetic response is observed, with the threshold strain required to achieve this response varying from 56% (six carbon spacers) to 81% (four carbon spacers). We also demonstrate that Poisson's ratios as low as -1.3 can be achieved. Further, we report that the LCEs display smectic phases with spacers of seven or more carbons; the resulting internal constraints cause low strains at failure, preventing an auxetic response. We also investigate the dependence of the auxetic threshold on the dynamics of the samples, finding that when accounting for the glass transition temperature of the LCEs, the auxetic thresholds converge around 56%, regardless of spacer length.

Toward Monodomain Nematic Liquid Crystal Elastomers of Arbitrary Thickness through PET-RAFT Polymerization

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are polymeric materials that are proposed for a range of applications. However, to reach their full potential, it is desirable to have as much flexibility as possible in terms of the sample dimensions, while maintaining well-defined alignment. In this work, photoinduced electron/energy transfer reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (PET-RAFT) polymerization is applied to the synthesis of LCEs for the first time. An initial LCE layer (∼100 μm thickness) is partially cured before a second layer of the precursor mixture is added. The curing reaction is then resumed and is observed by FTIR to complete within 15 min of irradiation, yielding samples of increased thickness. Monodomain samples that exhibit an auxetic response and are of thickness 250-300 μm are consistently achieved. All samples are characterized thermally, mechanically, and in terms of their order parameters. The LCEs have physical properties comparable to those of analogous LCEs produced via free-radical polymerization.

Multimodal Autonomous Locomotion of Liquid Crystal Elastomer Soft Robot

Self-oscillation phenomena observed in nature serve as extraordinary inspiration for designing synthetic autonomous moving systems. Converting self-oscillation into designable self-sustained locomotion can lead to a new generation of soft robots that require minimal/no external control. However, such locomotion is typically constrained to a single mode dictated by the constant surrounding environment. In this study, a liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) robot capable of achieving self-sustained multimodal locomotion, with the specific motion mode being controlled via substrate adhesion or remote light stimulation is presented. Specifically, the LCE is mechanically trained to undergo repeated snapping actions to ensure its self-sustained rolling motion in a constant gradient thermal field atop a hotplate. By further fine-tuning the substrate adhesion, the LCE robot exhibits reversible transitions between rolling and jumping modes. In addition, the rolling motion can be manipulated in real time through light stimulation to perform other diverse motions including turning, decelerating, stopping, backing up, and steering around complex obstacles. The principle of introducing an on-demand gate control offers a new venue for designing future autonomous soft robots.

4D Printable liquid crystal elastomers with restricted nanointerfacial slippage for long-term-cyclic-stability photothermal actuation

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) blended with photothermal nanofillers can reversibly and rapidly deform their shapes under external optical stimuli. However, nanointerfacial slipping inevitably occurs between the LCE molecules and the nanofillers due to their weak physical interactions, eventually resulting in cyclic instability. This work presents a versatile strategy to fabricate nanointerfacial-slipping-restricted photoactuation elastomers by chemically bonding the nanofillers into a thermally actuatable liquid crystal network. We experimentally and theoretically investigated three types of metal-based nanofillers, including zero-dimensional (0D) nanoparticles, one-dimensional (1D) nanowires, and two-dimensional (2D) nanosheets. The toughly crosslinked nanointerface allows for remarkably promoted interfacial thermal conductivity and stress transfer. Therefore, the resultant actuators enable the realization of long-term-cyclic-stability 4D-printed flexible intelligent systems such as the optical gripper, crawling robot, light-powered self-sustained windmill, butterflies with fluttering wings, and intelligent solar energy collection system.

Liquid Crystal Orientation and Shape Optimization for the Active Response of Liquid Crystal Elastomers

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are responsive materials that can undergo large reversible deformations upon exposure to external stimuli, such as electrical and thermal fields. Controlling the alignment of their liquid crystals mesogens to achieve desired shape changes unlocks a new design paradigm that is unavailable when using traditional materials. While experimental measurements can provide valuable insights into their behavior, computational analysis is essential to exploit their full potential. Accurate simulation is not, however, the end goal; rather, it is the means to achieve their optimal design. Such design optimization problems are best solved with algorithms that require gradients, i.e., sensitivities, of the cost and constraint functions with respect to the design parameters, to efficiently traverse the design space. In this work, a nonlinear LCE model and adjoint sensitivity analysis are implemented in a scalable and flexible finite element-based open source framework and integrated into a gradient-based design optimization tool. To display the versatility of the computational framework, LCE design problems that optimize both the material, i.e., liquid crystal orientation, and structural shape to reach a target actuated shapes or maximize energy absorption are solved. Multiple parameterizations, customized to address fabrication limitations, are investigated in both 2D and 3D. The case studies are followed by a discussion on the simulation and design optimization hurdles, as well as potential avenues for improving the robustness of similar computational frameworks for applications of interest.

Shape programming of liquid crystal elastomers

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are shape-morphing materials that demonstrate reversible actuation when exposed to external stimuli, such as light or heat. The actuation's complexity depends heavily on the instilled liquid crystal alignment, programmed into the material using various shape-programming processes. As an unavoidable part of LCE synthesis, these also introduce geometrical and output restrictions that dictate the final applicability. Considering LCE's future implementation in real-life applications, it is reasonable to explore these limiting factors. This review offers a brief overview of current shape-programming methods in relation to the challenges of employing LCEs as soft, shape-memory components in future devices.

Liquid Crystal Elastomer Artificial Tendrils with Asymmetric Core-Sheath Structure Showing Evolutionary Biomimetic Locomotion

The sophisticated and complex haptonastic movements in response to environmental-stimuli of living organisms have always fascinated scientists. However, how to fundamentally mimic the sophisticated hierarchical architectures of living organisms to provide the artificial counterparts with similar or even beyond-natural functions based on the underlying mechanism remains a major scientific challenge. Here,  liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) artificial tendrils showing evolutionary biomimetic locomotion are developed following the structure-function principle that is used in nature to grow climbing plants. These elaborately designed tendril-like LCE actuators possess an asymmetric core-sheath architecture which shows a higher-to-lower transition in the degree of LC orientation from the sheath-to-core layer across the semi-ellipse cross-section. Upon heating and cooling, the LCE artificial tendril can undergo reversible tendril-like shape-morphing behaviors, such as helical coiling/winding, and perversion. The fundamental mechanism of the helical shape-morphing of the artificial tendril is revealed by using theoretical models and finite element simulations. Besides, the incorporation of metal-ligand coordination into the LCE network provides the artificial tendril with reconfigurable shape-morphing performances such as helical transitions and rotational deformations. Finally, the abilities of helical and rotational deformations are integrated into a new reprogrammed flagellum-like architecture to perform evolutionary locomotion mimicking the haptonastic movements of the natural flagellum.

Bioinspired Jumping Soft Actuators of the Liquid Crystal Elastomer Enabled by Photo-Mechanical Coupling

Jumping, a fundamental survival behavior observed in organisms, serves as a vital mechanism for adapting to the surrounding environment and overcoming significant obstacles within a given terrain. Here, we present a light-controlled soft jumping actuator inspired by asphondylia, which employs a closed-loop structure and utilizes a liquid crystal elastomer (LCE). Photo-mechanical coupling highlights the significant influence of the light source on the actuator's jumping behavior. Manipulating the light intensity, the relative position of stimulus and light lock, and the concentration of disperse red 1 (DR1) allows precise control over both the maximum take-off velocity and jump height. Furthermore, tailoring the size of the LCE actuator offers a means of regulating jumping behavior. Upon exposure to 460 nm LED irradiation, our actuator achieves remarkable performance, with a maximum jumping height of 10 body length (BL) and take-off velocity of 62 BL/s. These actuators accumulate and rapidly release energy, enabling the effective transportation of microcargos across substantial distances. Our research yields valuable insights into the realm of soft robotics, underscoring the pivotal importance of photo-mechanical coupling in the field of soft robotics, thereby serving as a catalyst for inspiring continued exploration of agile and capable systems by prestoring elastic energy.

Free-Form Liquid Crystal Elastomers via Embedded 4D Printing

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a class of active materials that can generate rapid, reversible mechanical actuation in response to external stimuli. Fabrication methods for LCEs have remained a topic of intense research interest in recent years. One promising approach, termed 4D printing, combines the advantages of 3D printing with responsive materials, such as LCEs, to generate smart structures that not only possess user-defined static shapes but also can change their shape over time. To date, 4D-printed LCE structures have been limited to flat objects, restricting shape complexity and associated actuation for smart structure applications. In this work, we report the development of embedded 4D printing to extrude hydrophobic LCE ink into an aqueous, thixotropic gel matrix to produce free-standing, free-form 3D architectures without sacrificing the mechanical actuation properties. The ability to 4D print complex, free-standing 3D LCE architectures opens new avenues for the design and development of functional and responsive systems, such as reconfigurable metamaterials, soft robotics, or biomedical devices.

Programmable and Self-Healable Liquid Crystal Elastomer Actuators Based on Halogen Bonding

Shape-changing polymeric materials have gained significant attention in the field of bioinspired soft robotics. However, challenges remain in versatilizing the shape-morphing process to suit different tasks and environments, and in designing systems that combine reversible actuation and self-healing ability. Here, we report halogen-bonded liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) that can be arbitrarily shape-programmed and that self-heal under mild thermal or photothermal stimulation. We incorporate halogen-bond-donating diiodotetrafluorobenzene molecules as dynamic supramolecular crosslinks into the LCEs and show that these relatively weak crosslinks are pertinent for their mechanical programming and self-healing. Utilizing the halogen-bonded LCEs, we demonstrate proof-of-concept soft robotic motions such as crawling and rolling with programmed velocities. Our results showcase halogen bonding as a promising, yet unexplored tool for the preparation of smart supramolecular constructs for the development of advanced soft actuators.