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Leone G, Ahrens C, Korteniemi J, Gasparri D, Kereszturi A, Martynov A, Schmidt GW, Calabrese G, Joutsenvaara J. Sverdrup-Henson crater: A candidate location for the first lunar South Pole settlement. iScience 2023; 26:107853. [PMID: 37752949 PMCID: PMC10518707 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Robotic and manned exploration of the Moon is the next target in Solar System exploration. The availability of in situ resources such as water ice, iron oxides, helium-3, and rare earth elements, combined with permanently sunlit areas, provides the opportunity for the first settlement, either human or robotic, on the Moon. We used several selection criteria (abundance of water ice, the slope of terrain, usable energy sources, communications, and base expandability) to identify a suitable area for a future base in the southern polar crater Sverdrup-Henson. Due to the higher abundance of water ice, we found that the Sverdrup-Henson site is better suited to host a base than the nearby craters de Gerlache and Shackleton. The crater floor is partly in permanent shadow and exhibits numerous signatures of water ice. Since water ice is essential for rocket fuel production and human survival, its presence is necessary for a first settlement. Sverdrup-Henson has a flat floor ideal for building and safe traversing, is accessible from the surrounding intercrater plains, and has nearby locations suitable for communications and solar power production. Thus, the Sverdrup-Henson site holds great potential for future missions. We propose further exploration of this area through in situ measurements to better constrain available resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Leone
- Instituto de Investigación en Astronomía y Ciencias Planetarias, Universidad de Atacama, Copiapó 153000, Chile
| | | | | | - Daniele Gasparri
- Instituto de Investigación en Astronomía y Ciencias Planetarias, Universidad de Atacama, Copiapó 153000, Chile
| | - Akos Kereszturi
- Research Centre for Astronomy and Earth Sciences, Konkoly Thege Miklos Astronomical Institute, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | | | - Giuseppe Calabrese
- International Research School of Planetary Sciences (IRSPS), Universitá“D’Annunzio”di Chieti e Pescara, Chieti, Pescara, Italy
| | - Jari Joutsenvaara
- Arctic Planetary Science Institute (APSI), Rovaniemi, Finland
- Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
- Underground Science, Research & Development Centre Callio Lab, Pyhäjärvi, Finland
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2
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Siegler MA, Feng J, Lehman-Franco K, Andrews-Hanna JC, Economos RC, Clair MS, Million C, Head JW, Glotch TD, White MN. Remote detection of a lunar granitic batholith at Compton-Belkovich. Nature 2023; 620:116-121. [PMID: 37407821 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06183-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Granites are nearly absent in the Solar System outside of Earth. Achieving granitic compositions in magmatic systems requires multi-stage melting and fractionation, which also increases the concentration of radiogenic elements1. Abundant water and plate tectonics facilitate these processes on Earth, aiding in remelting. Although these drivers are absent on the Moon, small granite samples have been found, but details of their origin and the scale of systems they represent are unknown2. Here we report microwave-wavelength measurements of an anomalously hot geothermal source that is best explained by the presence of an approximately 50-kilometre-diameter granitic system below the thorium-rich farside feature known as Compton-Belkovich. Passive microwave radiometry is sensitive to the integrated thermal gradient to several wavelengths depth. The 3-37-gigahertz antenna temperatures of the Chang'e-1 and Chang'e-2 microwave instruments allow us to measure a peak heat flux of about 180 milliwatts per square metre, which is about 20 times higher than that of the average lunar highlands3,4. The surprising magnitude and geographic extent of this feature imply an Earth-like, evolved granitic system larger than believed possible on the Moon, especially outside of the Procellarum region5. Furthermore, these methods are generalizable: similar uses of passive radiometric data could vastly expand our knowledge of geothermal processes on the Moon and other planetary bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Siegler
- Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, USA.
- Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA.
| | - Jianqing Feng
- Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, AZ, USA.
- Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA.
| | | | - Jeffrey C Andrews-Hanna
- Department of Planetary Sciences/Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Rita C Economos
- Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
| | | | | | - James W Head
- Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Timothy D Glotch
- Department of Geosciences, SUNY Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Mackenzie N White
- Department of Earth Sciences, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, USA
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3
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Flahaut J, van der Bogert CH, Crawford IA, Vincent-Bonnieu S. Scientific perspectives on lunar exploration in Europe. NPJ Microgravity 2023; 9:50. [PMID: 37355663 DOI: 10.1038/s41526-023-00298-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The Moon is a geological history book, preserving information about the history of the Solar System, including the formation and early evolution of the terrestrial planets and their bombardment histories, as well as providing insight into other fundamental Solar System processes. These topics form the basis for science "of the Moon", but the lunar surface is also a platform for science "on the Moon" and "from the Moon"-including astronomical observations, fundamental physics, and life science investigations. Recently, the Moon has become a destination for technology research and development-in particular for developing in situ resources, human exploration, and habitation, and for its potential use as a waypoint for the human exploration of Mars. This paper, based on recommendations originally proposed in a White Paper for ESA's SciSpacE strategy, outlines key lunar science questions that may be addressed by future space exploration missions and makes recommendations for the next decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Flahaut
- CRPG, CNRS-UMR7358/Université de Lorraine, 54500, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, France.
| | | | - Ian A Crawford
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College London, Malet Street, London, WC1E 7HX, UK
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Biele J, Grott M, Zolensky ME, Benisek A, Dachs E. The Specific Heat of Astro-materials: Review of Theoretical Concepts, Materials, and Techniques. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THERMOPHYSICS 2022; 43:144. [PMID: 35937134 PMCID: PMC9343321 DOI: 10.1007/s10765-022-03046-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED We provide detailed background, theoretical and practical, on the specific heat of minerals and mixtures thereof, 'astro-materials,' as well as background information on common minerals and other relevant solid substances found on the surfaces of solar system bodies. Furthermore, we demonstrate how to use specific heat and composition data for lunar samples and meteorites as well as a new database of endmember mineral heat capacities (the result of an extensive literature review) to construct reference models for the isobaric specific heat c P as a function of temperature for common solar system materials. Using a (generally linear) mixing model for the specific heat of minerals allows extrapolation of the available data to very low and very high temperatures, such that models cover the temperature range between 10 K and 1000 K at least (and pressures from zero up to several kbars). We describe a procedure to estimate c P (T) for virtually any solid solar system material with a known mineral composition, e.g., model specific heat as a function of temperature for a number of typical meteorite classes with known mineralogical compositions. We present, as examples, the c P (T) curves of a number of well-described laboratory regolith analogs, as well as for planetary ices and 'tholins' in the outer solar system. Part II will review and present the heat capacity database for minerals and compounds and part III is going to cover applications, standard reference compositions, c P (T) curves, and a comparison with new and literature experimental data. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10765-022-03046-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Biele
- RB-MUSC, DLR – German Aerospace Center, 51147 Cologne, Germany
| | - Matthias Grott
- Institute for Planetary Research, DLR – German Aerospace Center, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Artur Benisek
- Chemistry and Physics of Materials, University of Salzburg, Jakob-Haringer-Str. 2a, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Edgar Dachs
- Chemistry and Physics of Materials, University of Salzburg, Jakob-Haringer-Str. 2a, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
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5
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Williams J, Pathare AV, Costello ES, Gallinger CL, Hayne PO, Ghent RR, Paige DA, Siegler MA, Russell PS, Elder CM. The Effects of Terrain Properties Upon the Small Crater Population Distribution at Giordano Bruno: Implications for Lunar Chronology. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. PLANETS 2022; 127:e2021JE007131. [PMID: 35865504 PMCID: PMC9287037 DOI: 10.1029/2021je007131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of impact craters on the ejecta of Giordano Bruno, a recent (<10 Ma) 22-km diameter crater within the lunar highlands, exhibits substantial variations. We surveyed craters D ≥ 10 m across a 1,323 km2 area of Giordano Bruno's ejecta and compared the distribution of craters with variations in thermophysical properties derived from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Diviner instrument. We used Diviner-derived rock abundance and nighttime regolith temperatures along with thermal model-predicted surface temperatures for a diversity of terrains to identify and isolate areas of the ejecta based on thermophysical properties such as bulk density and thermal conductivity. We found that thermophysical properties of the ejecta vary considerably both laterally and vertically, and consistently differ from typical regolith, indicating the presence of higher thermal inertia materials. Crater-size frequencies are significantly lower in areas with terrain properties exhibiting higher: rock abundance, nighttime temperatures, and/or modeled thermal inertia. This discrepancy in crater distribution increases for craters smaller than ∼25 m. These thermophysical variations indicate changes in the mechanical properties of the target materials. We suggest that these variations-specifically, terrain-dependent crater scaling variations and impactor-scale heterogeneities in material properties such as the presence or absence of large boulders-may influence crater diameters or inhibit crater production altogether in Giordano Bruno's ejecta; furthermore, these factors are size-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.‐P. Williams
- Earth, Planetary and Space SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | | | - E. S. Costello
- Department of Geology and GeophysicsUniversity of Hawai'i at MānoaHonoluluHIUSA
- Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and PlanetologyHonoluluHIUSA
| | - C. L. Gallinger
- Department of Earth SciencesUniversity of Western OntarioLondonONCanada
| | - P. O. Hayne
- Astrophysical and Planetary SciencesUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
- Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space PhysicsUniversity of Colorado BoulderBoulderCOUSA
| | | | - D. A. Paige
- Earth, Planetary and Space SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - M. A. Siegler
- Planetary Science InstituteTucsonAZUSA
- Department of Earth SciencesSouthern Methodist UniversityDallasTXUSA
| | - P. S. Russell
- Earth, Planetary and Space SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesCAUSA
| | - C. M. Elder
- Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of TechnologyPasadenaCAUSA
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6
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Exogenic origin for the volatiles sampled by the Lunar CRater Observation and Sensing Satellite impact. Nat Commun 2022; 13:642. [PMID: 35136041 PMCID: PMC8825836 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28289-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Returning humans to the Moon presents an unprecedented opportunity to determine the origin of volatiles stored in the permanently shaded regions (PSRs), which trace the history of lunar volcanic activity, solar wind surface chemistry, and volatile delivery to the Earth and Moon through impacts of comets, asteroids, and micrometeoroids. So far, the source of the volatiles sampled by the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) plume has remained undetermined. We show here that the source could not be volcanic outgassing and the composition is best explained by cometary impacts. Ruling out a volcanic source means that volatiles in the top 1-3 meters of the Cabeus PSR regolith may be younger than the latest volcanic outgassing event (~1 billion years ago; Gya). The water and other volatiles observed in the LCROSS impact plume contained too much nitrogen to have originated from volcanic outgassing. These volatiles, stored in the top 1-3 meters of the Cabeus permanently shaded region, were delivered by comet impacts.
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7
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Depth to Diameter Analysis on Small Simple Craters at the Lunar South Pole—Possible Implications for Ice Harboring. REMOTE SENSING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/rs14030450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a study comparing the depth to diameter (d/D) ratio of small simple craters (200–1000 m) of an area between −88.5° to −90° latitude at the lunar south pole containing Permanent Shadowed Regions (PSRs) versus craters without PSRs. As PSRs can reach temperatures of 110 K and are capable of harboring volatiles, especially water ice, we analyzed the relationship of depth versus diameter ratios and its possible implications for harboring water ice. Variations in the d/D ratios can also be caused by other processes such as degradation, isostatic adjustment, or differences in surface properties. The conducted d/D ratio analysis suggests that a differentiation between craters containing PSRs versus craters without PSRs occurs. Thus, a possible direct relation between d/D ratio, PSRs, and water ice harboring might exist. Our results suggest that differences in the target’s surface properties may explain the obtained results. The resulting d/D ratios of craters with PSRs can help to select target areas for future In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) missions.
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8
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Peering into lunar permanently shadowed regions with deep learning. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5607. [PMID: 34556656 PMCID: PMC8460740 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25882-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The lunar permanently shadowed regions (PSRs) are expected to host large quantities of water-ice, which are key for sustainable exploration of the Moon and beyond. In the near future, NASA and other entities plan to send rovers and humans to characterize water-ice within PSRs. However, there exists only limited information about the small-scale geomorphology and distribution of ice within PSRs because the orbital imagery captured to date lacks sufficient resolution and/or signal. In this paper, we develop and validate a new method of post-processing LRO NAC images of PSRs. We show that our method is able to reveal previously unseen geomorphological features such as boulders and craters down to 3 meters in size, whilst not finding evidence for surface frost or near-surface ice. Our post-processed images significantly facilitate the exploration of PSRs by reducing the uncertainty of target selection and traverse/mission planning.
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9
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Nakanishi R, Ishigami G. Wide-range routing method for lunar exploration rovers using multi-objective optimization. Adv Robot 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/01691864.2021.1970020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Reina Nakanishi
- Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Genya Ishigami
- Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
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10
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Elvis M, Krolikowski A, Milligan T. Concentrated lunar resources: imminent implications for governance and justice. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2021; 379:20190563. [PMID: 33222647 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2019.0563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Numerous missions planned for the next decade are likely to target a handful of small sites of interest on the Moon's surface, creating risks of crowding and interference at these locations. The Moon presents finite and scarce areas with rare topography or concentrations of resources of special value. Locations of interest to science, notably for astronomy, include the Peaks of Eternal Light, the coldest of the cold traps and smooth areas on the far side. Regions richest in physical resources could also be uniquely suited to settlement and commerce. Such sites of interest are both few and small. Typically, there are fewer than ten key sites of each type, each site spanning a few kilometres across. We survey the implications for different kinds of mission and find that the diverse actors pursuing incompatible ends at these sites could soon crowd and interfere with each other, leaving almost all actors worse off. Without proactive measures to prevent these outcomes, lunar actors are likely to experience significant losses of opportunity. We highlight the legal, policy and ethical ramifications. Insights from research on comparable sites on Earth present a path toward managing lunar crowding and interference grounded in ethical and practical near-term considerations. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Astronomy from the Moon: the next decades'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Elvis
- Center for Astrophysics Harvard and Smithsonian, 60 Garden St., Cambridge MA 02138, USA
| | - Alanna Krolikowski
- Department of History and Political Science and Center for Science, Technology, and Society, Missouri University of Science and Technology, 500 W 14th St., Rm 122, Rolla MO 65409, USA
| | - Tony Milligan
- Cosmological Visionaries Project, Department of Theology and Religious Studies, King's College London, Virginia Woolf Building, 22 Kingsway, London WC2B 6LE
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11
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Crawford IA, Joy KH, Pasckert JH, Hiesinger H. The lunar surface as a recorder of astrophysical processes. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2021; 379:20190562. [PMID: 33222641 PMCID: PMC7739904 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2019.0562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The lunar surface has been exposed to the space environment for billions of years and during this time has accumulated records of a wide range of astrophysical phenomena. These include solar wind particles and the cosmogenic products of solar particle events which preserve a record of the past evolution of the Sun, and cosmogenic nuclides produced by high-energy galactic cosmic rays which potentially record the galactic environment of the Solar System through time. The lunar surface may also have accreted material from the local interstellar medium, including supernova ejecta and material from interstellar clouds encountered by the Solar System in the past. Owing to the Moon's relatively low level of geological activity, absence of an atmosphere, and, for much of its history, lack of a magnetic field, the lunar surface is ideally suited to collect these astronomical records. Moreover, the Moon exhibits geological processes able to bury and thus both preserve and 'time-stamp' these records, although gaining access to them is likely to require a significant scientific infrastructure on the lunar surface. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Astronomy from the Moon: the next decades'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian A. Crawford
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck College, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, UK
- Centre for Planetary Sciences at UCL/Birkbeck, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Katherine H. Joy
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, M13 9PL Manchester, UK
| | - Jan H. Pasckert
- Institut für Planetologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Wilhelm-Klemm-Straße 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Harald Hiesinger
- Institut für Planetologie, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Wilhelm-Klemm-Straße 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
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12
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Lunar Regolith Temperature Variation in the Rümker Region Based on the Real-Time Illumination. REMOTE SENSING 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/rs12040731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Chang’E-5 will be China’s first sample−return mission. The proposed landing site is at the late-Eratosthenian-aged Rümker region of the lunar nearside. During this mission, a driller will be sunk into the lunar regolith to collect samples from depths up to two meters. This mission provides an ideal opportunity to investigate the lunar regolith temperature variation, which is important to the drilling program. This study focuses on the temperature variation of lunar regolith, especially the subsurface temperature. Such temperature information is crucial to both the engineering needs of the drilling program and interpretation of future heat-flow measurements at the lunar landing site. Based on the real-time illumination, and particularly the terrain obscuration, a one-dimensional heat equation was applied to estimate the temperature variation over the whole landing region. Our results confirm that while solar illumination strongly affects the surface temperature, such effect becomes weak at increasing depths. The skin depth of diurnal temperature variations is restricted to the uppermost ~5 cm, and the temperature of regolith deeper than ~0.6 m is controlled by the interior heat flow. At such a depth, China’s future lunar exploration is adequate to measure the inner heat flow, considering the drilling depth will be close to 2 m.
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13
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Runyon KD, Moriarty DP, Denevi BW, Greenhagen BT, Morgan G, Young KE, Cohen BA, van der Bogert CH, Hiesinger H, Jozwiak LM. Impact Melt Facies in the Moon's Crisium Basin: Identifying, Characterizing, and Future Radiogenic Dating. JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH. PLANETS 2020; 125:e2019JE006024. [PMID: 32714725 PMCID: PMC7375055 DOI: 10.1029/2019je006024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Both Earth and the Moon share a common history regarding the epoch of large basin formation, though only the lunar geologic record preserves any appreciable record of this Late Heavy Bombardment. The emergence of Earth's first life is approximately contemporaneous with the Late Heavy Bombardment; understanding the latter informs the environmental conditions of the former, which are likely necessary to constrain the mechanisms of abiogenesis. While the relative formation time of most of the Moon's large basins is known, the absolute timing is not. The timing of Crisium Basin's formation is one of many important events that must be constrained and would require identifying and dating impact melt formed in the Crisium event. To inform a future lunar sample dating mission, we thus characterized possible outcrops of impact melt. We determined that several mare lava-embayed kipukas could contain impact melt, though the rim and central peaks of the partially lava-flooded Yerkes Crater likely contain the most pure and intact Crisium impact melt. It is here where future robotic and/or human missions could confidently add a key missing piece to the puzzle of the combined issues of early Earth-Moon bombardment and the emergence of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. D. Runyon
- The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics LaboratoryLaurelMDUSA
| | | | - B. W. Denevi
- The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics LaboratoryLaurelMDUSA
| | - B. T. Greenhagen
- The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics LaboratoryLaurelMDUSA
| | - G. Morgan
- Planetary Science InstituteTucsonAZUSA
| | - K. E. Young
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
| | - B. A. Cohen
- NASA Goddard Space Flight CenterGreenbeltMDUSA
| | | | - H. Hiesinger
- Institut für PlanetologieUniversity of MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - L. M. Jozwiak
- The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics LaboratoryLaurelMDUSA
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14
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Design and Characterization of the Multi-Band SWIR Receiver for the Lunar Flashlight CubeSat Mission. REMOTE SENSING 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/rs11040440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Lunar Flashlight (LF) is an innovative National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) CubeSat mission that is dedicated to quantifying and mapping the water ice that is harbored in the permanently shadowed craters of the lunar South Pole. The primary goal is to understand the lunar resource potential for future human exploration of the Moon. To this end, the LF spacecraft will carry an active multi-band reflectometer, based on an optical receiver aligned with four high-power diode lasers emitting in the 1 to 2-μm shortwave infrared band, to measure the reflectance of the lunar surface from orbit near water ice absorption peaks. We present the detailed optical, mechanical, and thermal design of the receiver, which is required to fabricate this instrument within very demanding CubeSat resource allocations. The receiver has been optimized for solar stray light rejection from outside its field of view, and utilizes a 70 × 70-mm, aluminum, off-axis paraboloidal mirror with a focal length of 70 mm, which collects the reflected light from the Moon surface onto a single-pixel InGaAs detector with a 2-mm diameter, hence providing a 20-mrad field of view. The characterization of the flight receiver is also presented, and the results are in agreement with the expected performance obtained from simulations. Planned to be launched by NASA on the first Space Launch System (SLS) test flight, this highly mass-constrained and volume-constrained instrument payload will demonstrate several firsts, including being one of the first instruments onboard a CubeSat performing science measurements beyond low Earth orbit, and the first planetary mission to use multi-band active reflectometry from orbit.
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15
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Mazarico E, Barker MK, Nicholas JB. Advanced Illumination Modeling for Data Analysis and Calibration. Application to the Moon. ADVANCES IN SPACE RESEARCH : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE COMMITTEE ON SPACE RESEARCH (COSPAR) 2018; 62:3214-3228. [PMID: 30846890 PMCID: PMC6398960 DOI: 10.1016/j.asr.2018.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We present a new illumination modeling tool, called IllumNG, developed at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC). We describe its capabilities to enhance the analysis and calibration of science data collected by planetary missions. We highlight these with examples making use of lunar data, particularly the topographic and radiometric measurements collected by the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) instrument, with applications to radiometric measurements from other LRO instruments as well. The unique features of IllumNG are its accuracy and flexibility to handle multiple types of observers and light sources, and its ability to accurately model both singly- and doubly-scattered radiation to an observer.
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16
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Dreyer CB, Abbud-Madrid A, Atkinson J, Lampe A, Markley T, Williams H, McDonough K, Canney T, Haines J. A new experimental capability for the study of regolith surface physical properties to support science, space exploration, and in situ resource utilization (ISRU). THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2018; 89:064502. [PMID: 29960559 DOI: 10.1063/1.5023112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Many surfaces found on the Moon, asteroids, Mars, moons, and other planetary bodies are covered in a fine granular material known as regolith. Increased knowledge of the physical properties of extraterrestrial regolith surfaces will help advance the scientific knowledge of these bodies as well as the development of exploration (e.g., instrument and robotic) and in situ resource utilization (ISRU) systems. The Center for Space Resources at the Colorado School of Mines as part of the Institute for Modeling Plasma, Atmospheres, and Cosmic Dust of NASA's Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute has developed a novel system, called the ISRU Experimental Probe (IEP) that can support studies of dry and icy regolith from -196 to 150 °C and pressure from laboratory ambient pressure to 10-7 Torr. The IEP system and proof-of-concept results are presented in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Dreyer
- Center for Space Resources, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Angel Abbud-Madrid
- Center for Space Resources, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Jared Atkinson
- Geophysics, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Alexander Lampe
- Center for Space Resources, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Tasha Markley
- Geophysics, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Hunter Williams
- Center for Space Resources, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Kara McDonough
- Center for Space Resources, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Travis Canney
- Center for Space Resources, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
| | - Joseph Haines
- Center for Space Resources, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, USA
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17
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Warren TJ, Bowles NE, Donaldson Hanna K, Thomas IR. The Oxford space environment goniometer: A new experimental setup for making directional emissivity measurements under a simulated space environment. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2017; 88:124502. [PMID: 29289165 DOI: 10.1063/1.4986657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Measurements of the light scattering behaviour of the regoliths of airless bodies via remote sensing techniques in the Solar System, across wavelengths from the visible to the far infrared, are essential in understanding their surface properties. A key parameter is knowledge of the angular behaviour of scattered light, usually represented mathematically by a phase function. The phase function is believed to be dependent on many factors including the following: surface composition, surface roughness across all length scales, and the wavelength of radiation. Although there have been many phase function measurements of regolith analog materials across visible wavelengths, there have been no equivalent measurements made in the thermal infrared (TIR). This may have been due to a lack of TIR instruments as part of planetary remote sensing payloads. However, since the launch of Diviner to the Moon in 2009, OSIRIS-Rex to the asteroid Bennu in 2016, and the planned launch of BepiColombo to Mercury in 2018, there is now a large quantity of TIR remote sensing data that need to be interpreted. It is therefore important to extend laboratory phase function measurements to the TIR. This paper describes the design, build, calibration, and initial measurements from a new laboratory instrument that is able to make phase function measurements of analog planetary regoliths across wavelengths from the visible to the TIR.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Warren
- Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - N E Bowles
- Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - K Donaldson Hanna
- Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - I R Thomas
- Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (BIRA-IASB), Brussels, Belgium
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18
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Fisher EA, Lucey PG, Lemelin M, Greenhagen BT, Siegler MA, Mazarico E, Aharonson O, Williams JP, Hayne PO, Neumann GA, Paige DA, Smith DE, Zuber MT. Evidence for surface water ice in the lunar polar regions using reflectance measurements from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter and temperature measurements from the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment. ICARUS 2017; Volume 292:74-85. [PMID: 32367891 PMCID: PMC7197374 DOI: 10.1016/j.icarus.2017.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We find that the reflectance of the lunar surface within 5 ° of latitude of the South Pole increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, near ~110K, behavior consistent with the presence of surface water iceThe North polar region does not show this behavior, nor do South polar surfaces at latitudes more than 5° from the pole. This South pole reflectance anomaly persists when analysis is limited to surfaces with slopes less than 10° to eliminate false detection due to the brightening effect of mass wasting, and also when the very bright south polar crater Shackleton is excluded from the analysis. We also find that south polar regions of permanent shadow that have been reported to be generally brighter at 1064 nm do not show anomalous reflectance when their annual maximum surface temperatures are too high to preserve water ice. This distinction is not observed at the North Pole. The reflectance excursion on surfaces with maximum temperatures below 110K is superimposed on a general trend of increasing reflectance with decreasing maximum temperature that is present throughout the polar regions in the north and south; we attribute this trend to a temperature or illumination-dependent space weathering effect (e.g. Hemingway et al. 2015). We also find a sudden increase in reflectance with decreasing temperature superimposed on the general trend at 200K and possibly at 300K. This may indicate the presence of other volatiles such as sulfur or organics. We identified and mapped surfaces with reflectances so high as to be unlikely to be part of an ice-free population. In this south we find a similar distribution found by Hayne et al. 2015 based on UV properties. In the north a cluster of pixels near that pole may represent a limited frost exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Fisher
- Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology University of Hawaii at Manoa 1680 East West Road Honolulu HI 96822 [Now at Brown University, Dept. of Earth, Environmental & Planetary Sciences, 324 Brook St., Providence, RI 02912]
| | - Paul G Lucey
- Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology University of Hawaii at Manoa 1680 East West Road Honolulu HI 96822
| | - Myriam Lemelin
- Department of Earth & Space Science & Engineering York University Toronto, Canada
| | - Benjamin T Greenhagen
- Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, 11101 Johns Hopkins Rd. Laurel, 20723 MD, USA
| | - Matthew A Siegler
- Planetary Science Institute, Tucson, Arizona 85719, USA and Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75275, USA
| | | | - Oded Aharonson
- Weizmann Institute of Science, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Jean-Pierre Williams
- Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Paul O Hayne
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, United States
| | | | - David A Paige
- Earth, Planetary, and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - David E Smith
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, MIT, 77 Massachusetts Ave. Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
| | - Maria T Zuber
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, MIT, 77 Massachusetts Ave. Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
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19
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Lunar true polar wander inferred from polar hydrogen. Nature 2016; 531:480-4. [DOI: 10.1038/nature17166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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20
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Anand M, Tartèse R, Barnes JJ. Understanding the origin and evolution of water in the Moon through lunar sample studies. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2014; 372:20130254. [PMID: 25114308 PMCID: PMC4128269 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2013.0254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
A paradigm shift has recently occurred in our knowledge and understanding of water in the lunar interior. This has transpired principally through continued analysis of returned lunar samples using modern analytical instrumentation. While these recent studies have undoubtedly measured indigenous water in lunar samples they have also highlighted our current limitations and some future challenges that need to be overcome in order to fully understand the origin, distribution and evolution of water in the lunar interior. Another exciting recent development in the field of lunar science has been the unambiguous detection of water or water ice on the surface of the Moon through instruments flown on a number of orbiting spacecraft missions. Considered together, sample-based studies and those from orbit strongly suggest that the Moon is not an anhydrous planetary body, as previously believed. New observations and measurements support the possibility of a wet lunar interior and the presence of distinct reservoirs of water on the lunar surface. Furthermore, an approach combining measurements of water abundance in lunar samples and its hydrogen isotopic composition has proved to be of vital importance to fingerprint and elucidate processes and source(s) involved in giving rise to the lunar water inventory. A number of sources are likely to have contributed to the water inventory of the Moon ranging from primordial water to meteorite-derived water ice through to the water formed during the reaction of solar wind hydrogen with the lunar soil. Perhaps two of the most striking findings from these recent studies are the revelation that at least some portions of the lunar interior are as water-rich as some Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt source regions on Earth and that the water in the Earth and the Moon probably share a common origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Anand
- Department of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK Department of Earth Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Romain Tartèse
- Department of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK
| | - Jessica J Barnes
- Department of Physical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK Department of Earth Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
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21
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Volokin D, ReLlez L. On the average temperature of airless spherical bodies and the magnitude of Earth's atmospheric thermal effect. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:723. [PMID: 26034697 PMCID: PMC4447774 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The presence of atmosphere can appreciably warm a planet's surface above the temperature of an airless environment. Known as a natural Greenhouse Effect (GE), this near-surface Atmospheric Thermal Enhancement (ATE) as named herein is presently entirely attributed to the absorption of up-welling long-wave radiation by greenhouse gases. Often quoted as 33 K for Earth, GE is estimated as a difference between planet's observed mean surface temperature and an effective radiating temperature calculated from the globally averaged absorbed solar flux using the Stefan-Boltzmann (SB) radiation law. This approach equates a planet's average temperature in the absence of greenhouse gases or atmosphere to an effective emission temperature assuming ATE ≡ GE. The SB law is also routinely employed to estimating the mean temperatures of airless bodies. We demonstrate that this formula as applied to spherical objects is mathematically incorrect owing to Hölder's inequality between integrals and leads to biased results such as a significant underestimation of Earth's ATE. We derive a new expression for the mean physical temperature of airless bodies based on an analytic integration of the SB law over a sphere that accounts for effects of regolith heat storage and cosmic background radiation on nighttime temperatures. Upon verifying our model against Moon surface temperature data provided by the NASA Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment, we propose it as a new analytic standard for evaluating the thermal environment of airless bodies. Physical evidence is presented that Earth's ATE should be assessed against the temperature of an equivalent airless body such as the Moon rather than a hypothetical atmosphere devoid of greenhouse gases. Employing the new temperature formula we show that Earth's total ATE is ~90 K, not 33 K, and that ATE = GE + TE, where GE is the thermal effect of greenhouse gases, while TE > 15 K is a thermodynamic enhancement independent of the atmospheric infrared back radiation. It is concluded that the contribution of greenhouse gases to Earth's ATE defined as GE = ATE - TE might be greater than 33 K, but will remain uncertain until the strength of the hereto identified TE is fully quantified by future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Den Volokin
- Tso Consulting, 843 E Three Fountains Suite 260, Salt Lake City, UT 84107 USA
| | - Lark ReLlez
- Tso Consulting, 843 E Three Fountains Suite 260, Salt Lake City, UT 84107 USA
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22
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Abstract
Observations by the MESSENGER spacecraft are revealing details of Mercury's dynamic atmosphere.
[Also see Reports by
Lawrence
et al.
,
Neumann
et al.
, and
Paige
et al.
]
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul G Lucey
- Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
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23
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Montague M, McArthur GH, Cockell CS, Held J, Marshall W, Sherman LA, Wang N, Nicholson WL, Tarjan DR, Cumbers J. The role of synthetic biology for in situ resource utilization (ISRU). ASTROBIOLOGY 2012; 12:1135-1142. [PMID: 23140229 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2012.0829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A persistent presence in space can either be supported from Earth or generate the required resources for human survival from material already present in space, so called "in situ material." Likely, many of these resources such as water or oxygen can best be liberated from in situ material by conventional physical and chemical processes. However, there is one critical resource required for human life that can only be produced in quantity by biological processes: high-protein food. Here, recent data concerning the materials available on the Moon and common asteroid types is reviewed with regard to the necessary materials to support the production of food from material in situ to those environments. These materials and their suitability as feedstock for the biological production of food are reviewed in a broad and general way such that terminology that is often a barrier to understanding such material by interdisciplinary readers is avoided. The waste products available as in situ materials for feasibility studies on the International Space Station are also briefly discussed. The conclusion is that food production in space environments from in situ material proven to exist there is quite feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Montague
- Department of Synthetic Biology, The J. Craig Venter Institute , Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA.
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24
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Paige DA, Siegler MA, Harmon JK, Neumann GA, Mazarico EM, Smith DE, Zuber MT, Harju E, Delitsky ML, Solomon SC. Thermal stability of volatiles in the north polar region of Mercury. Science 2012. [PMID: 23196905 DOI: 10.1126/science.1231106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Thermal models for the north polar region of Mercury, calculated from topographic measurements made by the MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging (MESSENGER) spacecraft, show that the spatial distribution of regions of high radar backscatter is well matched by the predicted distribution of thermally stable water ice. MESSENGER measurements of near-infrared surface reflectance indicate bright surfaces in the coldest areas where water ice is predicted to be stable at the surface, and dark surfaces within and surrounding warmer areas where water ice is predicted to be stable only in the near subsurface. We propose that the dark surface layer is a sublimation lag deposit that may be rich in impact-derived organic material.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Paige
- Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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25
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Miller RS, Nerurkar G, Lawrence DJ. Enhanced hydrogen at the lunar poles: New insights from the detection of epithermal and fast neutron signatures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2012je004112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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26
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Mitrofanov I, Litvak M, Sanin A, Malakhov A, Golovin D, Boynton W, Droege G, Chin G, Evans L, Harshman K, Fedosov F, Garvin J, Kozyrev A, McClanahan T, Milikh G, Mokrousov M, Starr R, Sagdeev R, Shevchenko V, Shvetsov V, Tret'yakov V, Trombka J, Varenikov A, Vostrukhin A. Testing polar spots of water-rich permafrost on the Moon: LEND observations onboard LRO. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011je003956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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27
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Vasavada AR, Bandfield JL, Greenhagen BT, Hayne PO, Siegler MA, Williams JP, Paige DA. Lunar equatorial surface temperatures and regolith properties from the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011je003987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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28
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Gladstone GR, Retherford KD, Egan AF, Kaufmann DE, Miles PF, Parker JW, Horvath D, Rojas PM, Versteeg MH, Davis MW, Greathouse TK, Slater DC, Mukherjee J, Steffl AJ, Feldman PD, Hurley DM, Pryor WR, Hendrix AR, Mazarico E, Stern SA. Far-ultraviolet reflectance properties of the Moon's permanently shadowed regions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011je003913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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29
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Siegler MA, Bills BG, Paige DA. Effects of orbital evolution on lunar ice stability. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010je003652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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30
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Gladstone GR, Hurley DM, Retherford KD, Feldman PD, Pryor WR, Chaufray JY, Versteeg M, Greathouse TK, Steffl AJ, Throop H, Parker JW, Kaufmann DE, Egan AF, Davis MW, Slater DC, Mukherjee J, Miles PF, Hendrix AR, Colaprete A, Stern SA. LRO-LAMP Observations of the LCROSS Impact Plume. Science 2010; 330:472-6. [PMID: 20966244 DOI: 10.1126/science.1186474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Dana M. Hurley
- The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD 20723, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Henry Throop
- Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Joey Mukherjee
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78238, USA
| | - Paul F. Miles
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78238, USA
| | | | | | - S. Alan Stern
- Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, CO 80302, USA
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31
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Lovett R. Astronomers comb through Moon smash haul. Nature 2010. [DOI: 10.1038/news.2010.556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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32
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Schultz PH, Hermalyn B, Colaprete A, Ennico K, Shirley M, Marshall WS. The LCROSS Cratering Experiment. Science 2010; 330:468-72. [DOI: 10.1126/science.1187454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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33
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Colaprete A, Schultz P, Heldmann J, Wooden D, Shirley M, Ennico K, Hermalyn B, Marshall W, Ricco A, Elphic RC, Goldstein D, Summy D, Bart GD, Asphaug E, Korycansky D, Landis D, Sollitt L. Detection of Water in the LCROSS Ejecta Plume. Science 2010; 330:463-8. [DOI: 10.1126/science.1186986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 522] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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