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Hare JS, Wilmouth DM, Smith JB, Klobas JE, Toohey DW, Hannun RA, Pittman JV, Anderson JG. Method for the production of a compact source of atomic line spectra in the vacuum ultraviolet. APPLIED OPTICS 2024; 63:3685-3694. [PMID: 38856555 DOI: 10.1364/ao.520905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Atomic emission spectra provide a means to identify and to gain insight into the electronic structure of emitting or absorbing matter. Detailed procedures are provided for the construction of low-pressure electrodeless discharge lamps that yield targeted emission in the vacuum ultraviolet for the spectroscopic study of water vapor and halogen species aboard an array of airborne observation platforms in the upper atmosphere, as well as in laboratory environments. While specific to the production of Lyman-alpha, atomic chlorine, and atomic bromine emissions in this study, the configuration of the lamps and their interchangeability with respect to operation lend these procedures to constructing sources engaging a wide selection of atomic and molecular spectra with straightforward modifications. The features and limitations of each type of lamp are discussed, as well as methods to improve spectral purity and factors affecting operational lifetime.
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Abstract
Abstract
Remarkable progress has occurred over the last 100 years in our understanding of atmospheric chemical composition, stratospheric and tropospheric chemistry, urban air pollution, acid rain, and the formation of airborne particles from gas-phase chemistry. Much of this progress was associated with the developing understanding of the formation and role of ozone and of the oxides of nitrogen, NO and NO2, in the stratosphere and troposphere. The chemistry of the stratosphere, emerging from the pioneering work of Chapman in 1931, was followed by the discovery of catalytic ozone cycles, ozone destruction by chlorofluorocarbons, and the polar ozone holes, work honored by the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry awarded to Crutzen, Rowland, and Molina. Foundations for the modern understanding of tropospheric chemistry were laid in the 1950s and 1960s, stimulated by the eye-stinging smog in Los Angeles. The importance of the hydroxyl (OH) radical and its relationship to the oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2) emerged. The chemical processes leading to acid rain were elucidated. The atmosphere contains an immense number of gas-phase organic compounds, a result of emissions from plants and animals, natural and anthropogenic combustion processes, emissions from oceans, and from the atmospheric oxidation of organics emitted into the atmosphere. Organic atmospheric particulate matter arises largely as gas-phase organic compounds undergo oxidation to yield low-volatility products that condense into the particle phase. A hundred years ago, quantitative theories of chemical reaction rates were nonexistent. Today, comprehensive computer codes are available for performing detailed calculations of chemical reaction rates and mechanisms for atmospheric reactions. Understanding the future role of atmospheric chemistry in climate change and, in turn, the impact of climate change on atmospheric chemistry, will be critical to developing effective policies to protect the planet.
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Weiler KH, Fabian P, Flentje G, Matthews WA. Stratospheric NO measurements: A new balloon-borne chemiluminescent instrument. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/jc085ic12p07445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Raghunath P, Lin MC. Ab initio chemical kinetics for the ClOO + NO reaction: Effects of temperature and pressure on product branching formation. J Chem Phys 2012; 137:014315. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4731883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Anderson JG, Toohey DW, Brune WH. Free Radicals Within the Antarctic Vortex: The Role of CFCs in Antarctic Ozone Loss. Science 2010; 251:39-46. [PMID: 17778601 DOI: 10.1126/science.251.4989.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
How strong is the case linking global release of chlorofluorocarbons to episodic disappearance of ozone from the Antarctic stratosphere each austral spring? Three lines of evidence defining a link are (i) observed containment in the vortex of ClO concentrations two orders of magnitude greater than normal levels; (ii) in situ observations obtained during ten high-altitude aircraft flights into the vortex as the ozone hole was forming that show a decrease in ozone concentrations as ClO concentrations increased; and (iii) a comparison between observed ozone loss rates and those predicted with the use of absolute concentrations of ClO and BrO, the rate-limiting radicals in an array of proposed catalytic cycles. Recent advances in our understanding of the kinetics, photochemistry, and structural details of key intermediates in these catalytic cycles as well as an improved absolute calibration for ClO and BrO concentrations at the temperatures and pressures encountered in the lower antarctic stratosphere have been essential for defining the link.
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Wilmouth DM, Hanisco TF, Stimpfle RM, Anderson JG. Chlorine-catalyzed ozone destruction: Cl atom production from ClOOCl photolysis. J Phys Chem A 2010; 113:14099-108. [PMID: 19852447 DOI: 10.1021/jp9053204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent laboratory measurements of the absorption cross sections of the ClO dimer, ClOOCl, have called into question the validity of the mechanism that describes the catalytic removal of ozone by chlorine. Here we describe direct measurements of the rate-determining step of that mechanism, the production of Cl atoms from the photolysis of ClOOCl, under laboratory conditions similar to those in the stratosphere. ClOOCl is formed in a cold-temperature flowing system, with production initiated by a microwave discharge of Cl(2) or photolysis of CF(2)Cl(2). Excimer lasers operating at 248, 308, and 352 nm photodissociate ClOOCl, and the Cl atoms produced are detected with time-resolved atomic resonance fluorescence. Cl(2), the primary contaminant, is measured directly for the first time in a ClOOCl cross section experiment. We find the product of the quantum yield of the Cl atom production channel of ClOOCl photolysis and the ClOOCl absorption cross section, (phisigma)(ClOOCl) = 660 +/- 100 at 248 nm, 39.3 +/- 4.9 at 308 nm, and 8.6 +/- 1.2 at 352 nm (units of 10(-20) cm(2) molecule(-1)). The data set includes 468 total cross section measurements over a wide range of experimental conditions, significantly reducing the possibility of a systematic error impacting the results. These new measurements demonstrate that long-wavelength photons (lambda = 352 nm) are absorbed by ClOOCl directly, producing Cl atoms with a probability commensurate with the observed rate of ozone destruction in the atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Wilmouth
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA.
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Cracknell AP, Varotsos CA. The contribution of remote sensing to the implementation of the Montreal Protocol and the monitoring of its success. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 2009; 30:3853-3873. [DOI: 10.1080/01431160902821999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur P. Cracknell
- a Division of Electronic Engineering and Physics , University of Dundee , Dundee, DD1 4HN, Scotland, UK
| | - Costas A. Varotsos
- b Department of Applied Physics , University of Athens , Panepistimioupolis Building 5, 15784, Athens, Greece
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Thornton BF, Toohey DW, Tuck AF, Elkins JW, Kelly KK, Hovde SJ, Richard EC, Rosenlof KH, Thompson TL, Mahoney MJ, Wilson JC. Chlorine activation near the midlatitude tropopause. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jd007640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Cohen RC, Murphy JG. Photochemistry of NO2 in Earth's Stratosphere: Constraints from Observations. Chem Rev 2003; 103:4985-98. [PMID: 14664640 DOI: 10.1021/cr020647x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ronald C Cohen
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1460, USA
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Waters JW, Read WG, Froidevaux L, Lungu TA, Perun VS, Stachnik RA, Jarnot RF, Cofield RE, Fishbein EF, Flower DA, Burke JR, Hardy JC, Nakamura LL, Ridenoure BP, Shippony Z, Thurstans RP, Avallone LM, Toohey DW, deZafra RL, Shindell DT. Validation of UARS Microwave Limb Sounder ClO measurements. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1996. [DOI: 10.1029/95jd03351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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14
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Prasad SS, Lee TJ. Atmospheric chemistry of the reaction ClO + O2↔ ClO · O2: Where it stands, what needs to be done, and why? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1029/93jd01809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Papadopoulos K, Milikh GM, Ali AW, Shanny R. Remote photometry of the atmosphere using microwave breakdown. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1029/93jd03196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Elliott S, Richard P. T, Jacobson MZ. Tests on combined projection/forward differencing integration for stiff photochemical family systems at long time step. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/0097-8485(93)80034-b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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17
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Burnett EB. Fourier-analytic technique for the separation of the signature of atmospheric CIO absorption from the solar background spectrum in the near ultraviolet. APPLIED OPTICS 1989; 28:430-436. [PMID: 20548499 DOI: 10.1364/ao.28.000430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The high-resolution CIO absorption signature in the region of 308.1 nm has a very low absorption fraction, of the order of 6 x 10(-5), and linewidths comparable with those of the solar background spectrum. Because of the need for reliable absorption measurements of the abundance of this species, which is important in ozone photochemistry, a Fourier-analysis-based technique for the deconvolution of atmospheric solar absorption spectra in this region has been developed. The technique utilizes the regularity of the CIO spectrum and results in a significant reduction in the minimum signal-to-noise required for the retrieval of CIO abundances from absorption spectra.
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Solomon PM, de Zafra R, Parrish A, Barrett JW. Diurnal Variation of Stratospheric Chlorine Monoxide: A Critical Test of Chlorine Chemistry in the Ozone Layer. Science 1984; 224:1210-4. [PMID: 17819478 DOI: 10.1126/science.224.4654.1210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
This article reports measurements of the column density of stratospheric chlorine monoxide and presents a complete diurnal record of its variation (with 2-hour resolution) obtained from ground-based observations of a millimeter-wave spectral line at 278 gigahertz. Observations were carried out during October and December 1982 from Mauna Kea, Hawaii. The results reported here indicate that the mixing ratio and column density of chlorine monoxide above 30 kilometers during the daytime are approximately 20 percent lower than model predictions based on 2.1 parts per billion of total stratospheric chlorine. The observed day-to-night variation of chlorine monoxide is, however, in good agreement with recent model predictions, confirms the existence of a nighttime reservoir for chlorine, and verifies the predicted general rate of its storage and retrieval. From this evidence, it appears that the chlorine chemistry above 30 kilometers is close to being understood in current stratospheric models. Models based on this chemistry and measured reaction rates predict a reduction in the total stratospheric ozone content in the range of 3 to 5 percent in the final steady state for an otherwise unperturbed atmosphere, although the percentage decrease in the upper stratosphere is much higher.
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Patrick CR. The effects of releases of chlorofluorocarbons on stratospheric ozone: The present position [1]. J Fluor Chem 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1139(00)81189-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Ko MKW, Sze ND. Diurnal variation of ClO: Implications for the stratospheric chemistries of ClONO2, HOCl, and HCl. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1984. [DOI: 10.1029/jd089id07p11619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Gidel LT, Crutzen PJ, Fishman J. A two-dimensional photochemical model of the atmosphere: 1. Chlorocarbon emissions and their effect on stratospheric ozone. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1983. [DOI: 10.1029/jc088ic11p06622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Stolarski RS. Fluorocarbons and Stratospheric Ozone: A Review of Current Knowledge. AM STAT 1982. [DOI: 10.1080/00031305.1982.10482859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Waters JW, Hardy JC, Jarnot RF, Pickett HM. Chlorine Monoxide Radical, Ozone, and Hydrogen Peroxide: Stratospheric Measurements by Microwave Limb Sounding. Science 1981; 214:61-4. [PMID: 17802574 DOI: 10.1126/science.214.4516.61] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Profiles of stratospheric ozone and chlorine monoxide radical (C1O) have been obtained from balloon measurements of atmospheric limb thermal emission at millimeter wavelengths. The C1O measurements, important for assessing the predicted depletion of stratospheric ozone by chlorine from industrial sources, are in close agreement with present theory, The predicted decrease of C1O at sunset was measured. A tentative value for the stratospheric abundance of hydrogen peroxide was also determined.
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Parrish A, DE Zafra RL, Solomon PM, Barrett JW, Carlson ER. Chlorine Oxide in the Stratospheric Ozone Layer: Ground-Based Detection and Measurement. Science 1981; 211:1158-61. [PMID: 17755154 DOI: 10.1126/science.211.4487.1158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Stratospheric chlorine oxide, a significant intermediate product in the catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic chlorine, has been detected and measured by a ground-based 204-gigahertz, millimeter-wave receiver. Data taken at latitude 42 degrees N on 17 days between 10 January and 18 February 1980 yield an average chlorine oxide column density of approximately 1.05 x 10(14) per square centimeter or approximately 2/3 that of the average of eight in situ balloon flight measurements (excluding the anomalously high data of 14 July 1977) made over the past 4 years at 32 degrees N. We find less chlorine oxide below 35 kilometers and a larger vertical gradient than predicted by theoretical models of the stratospheric ozone layer.
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Rudolph J, Ehhalt DH, Tönnissen A. Vertical profiles of ethane and propane in the stratosphere. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1029/jc086ic08p07267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Weinstock EM, Phillips MJ, Anderson JG. In situ observations of ClO in the stratosphere: A review of recent results. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1029/jc086ic08p07273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Cook JL, Ennis CA, Leck TJ, Birks JW. Studies of reactions of importance in the stratosphere. IV. Rate constant for the reaction Cl+HOCl→HCl+ClO over the temperature range 243–365 K. J Chem Phys 1981. [DOI: 10.1063/1.440807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Miller C, Filkin DL, Owens AJ, Steed JM, Jesson JP. A two-dimensional model of stratospheric chemistry and transport. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1029/jc086ic12p12039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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32
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Whitten R, Borucki W, Woodward H, Capone L, Riegel C, Turco R, Poppoff I, Santhanam K. Implications of smaller concentrations of stratospheric OH: A two-dimensional model study of ozone perturbations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/0004-6981(81)90142-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Anderson JG, Grassl HJ, Shetter RE, Margitan JJ. Stratospheric free chlorine measured by balloon-borne in situ resonance fluorescence. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1980. [DOI: 10.1029/jc085ic05p02869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Noxon JF, Whipple EC, Hyde RS. Stratospheric NO2: 1. Observational method and behavior at mid-latitude. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979. [DOI: 10.1029/jc084ic08p05047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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37
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Strattan LW, Eibling RE, Kaufman M. Rate constant of the reaction between chlorine atoms and sulfur dioxide and its significance for stratospheric chlorine chemistry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979. [DOI: 10.1016/0004-6981(79)90256-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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38
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Waters JW, Gustincic JJ, Kakar RK, Roscoe HK, Swanson PN, Phillips TG, De Graauw T, Kerr AR, Mattauch RJ. Aircraft search for millimeter-wavelength emission by stratospheric ClO. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1979. [DOI: 10.1029/jc084ic11p07034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Dotan I, Albritton DL, Fehsenfeld FC, Streit GE, Ferguson EE. Rate constants for the reactions of O−, O2−, NO2−, CO3−, and CO4− with HCl and ClO− with NO, NO2, SO2, and CO2 at 300 K. J Chem Phys 1978. [DOI: 10.1063/1.435717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Miller C, Meakin P, Franks R, Jesson J. The fluorocarbon-Ozone theory—V. One-dimensional modeling of the atmosphere: The base case. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1978. [DOI: 10.1016/0004-6981(78)90293-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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