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Crispim M, Verdaguer IB, Hernández A, Kronenberger T, Fenollar À, Yamaguchi LF, Alberione MP, Ramirez M, de Oliveira SS, Katzin AM, Izquierdo L. Beyond the MEP Pathway: A novel kinase required for prenol utilization by malaria parasites. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011557. [PMID: 38277417 PMCID: PMC10849223 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
A proposed treatment for malaria is a combination of fosmidomycin and clindamycin. Both compounds inhibit the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, the parasitic source of farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (FPP and GGPP, respectively). Both FPP and GGPP are crucial for the biosynthesis of several essential metabolites such as ubiquinone and dolichol, as well as for protein prenylation. Dietary prenols, such as farnesol (FOH) and geranylgeraniol (GGOH), can rescue parasites from MEP inhibitors, suggesting the existence of a missing pathway for prenol salvage via phosphorylation. In this study, we identified a gene in the genome of P. falciparum, encoding a transmembrane prenol kinase (PolK) involved in the salvage of FOH and GGOH. The enzyme was expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and its FOH/GGOH kinase activities were experimentally validated. Furthermore, conditional knockout parasites (Δ-PolK) were created to investigate the biological importance of the FOH/GGOH salvage pathway. Δ-PolK parasites were viable but displayed increased susceptibility to fosmidomycin. Their sensitivity to MEP inhibitors could not be rescued by adding prenols. Additionally, Δ-PolK parasites lost their capability to utilize prenols for protein prenylation. Experiments using culture medium supplemented with whole/delipidated human plasma in transgenic parasites revealed that human plasma has components that can diminish the effectiveness of fosmidomycin. Mass spectrometry tests indicated that both bovine supplements used in culture and human plasma contain GGOH. These findings suggest that the FOH/GGOH salvage pathway might offer an alternate source of isoprenoids for malaria parasites when de novo biosynthesis is inhibited. This study also identifies a novel kind of enzyme related to isoprenoid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Agustín Hernández
- Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Integrated Unit for Research in Biodiversity (BIOTROP-CCBS), Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Thales Kronenberger
- Institute of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical/Medicinal Chemistry and Tuebingen Center for Academic Drug Discovery, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
- Excellence Cluster "Controlling Microbes to Fight Infections" (CMFI), Tübingen, Germany
| | - Àngel Fenollar
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - María Pía Alberione
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miriam Ramirez
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luis Izquierdo
- Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic-Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), Barcelona, Spain
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Verdaguer IB, Crispim M, Hernández A, Katzin AM. The Biomedical Importance of the Missing Pathway for Farnesol and Geranylgeraniol Salvage. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27248691. [PMID: 36557825 PMCID: PMC9782597 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27248691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Isoprenoids are the output of the polymerization of five-carbon, branched isoprenic chains derived from isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and its isomer, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). Isoprene units are consecutively condensed to form longer structures such as farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (FPP and GGPP, respectively), necessary for the biosynthesis of several metabolites. Polyprenyl transferases and synthases use polyprenyl pyrophosphates as their natural substrates; however, it is known that free polyprenols, such as farnesol (FOH), and geranylgeraniol (GGOH) can be incorporated into prenylated proteins, ubiquinone, cholesterol, and dolichols. Furthermore, FOH and GGOH have been shown to block the effects of isoprenoid biosynthesis inhibitors such as fosmidomycin, bisphosphonates, or statins in several organisms. This phenomenon is the consequence of a short pathway, which was observed for the first time more than 25 years ago: the polyprenol salvage pathway, which works via the phosphorylation of FOH and GGOH. Biochemical studies in bacteria, animals, and plants suggest that this pathway can be carried out by two enzymes: a polyprenol kinase and a polyprenyl-phosphate kinase. However, to date, only a few genes have been unequivocally identified to encode these enzymes in photosynthetic organisms. Nevertheless, pieces of evidence for the importance of this pathway abound in studies related to infectious diseases, cancer, dyslipidemias, and nutrition, and to the mitigation of the secondary effects of several drugs. Furthermore, nowadays it is known that both FOH and GGOH can be incorporated via dietary sources that produce various biological effects. This review presents, in a simplified but comprehensive manner, the most important data on the FOH and GGOH salvage pathway, stressing its biomedical importance The main objective of this review is to bring to light the need to discover and characterize the kinases associated with the isoprenoid salvage pathway in animals and pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Agustín Hernández
- Integrated Unit for Research in Biodiversity (BIOTROP-CCBS), Center for Biological and Health Sciences, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos 13565-905, Brazil
| | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, Av. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-11-3091-7330; Fax: +55-11-3091-7417
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Bofill Verdaguer I, Sussmann RAC, Santiago VF, Palmisano G, Moura GC, Mesquita JT, Yamaguchi LF, Kato MJ, Katzin AM, Crispim M. Isoprenoid alcohols utilization by malaria parasites. Front Chem 2022; 10:1035548. [PMID: 36531309 PMCID: PMC9751614 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.1035548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum is the etiological agent of human malaria, one of the most widespread diseases in tropical and subtropical regions. Drug resistance is one of the biggest problems in controlling the disease, which leads to the need to discover new antimalarial compounds. One of the most promissory drugs purposed is fosmidomycin, an inhibitor of the biosynthesis of isoprene units by the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, which in some cases failed in clinical studies. Once formed, isoprene units are condensed to form longer structures such as farnesyl and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, which are necessary for Heme O and A formation, ubiquinone, and dolichyl phosphate biosynthesis as well as for protein isoprenylation. Even though the natural substrates of polyprenyl transferases and synthases are polyprenyl pyrophosphates, it was already demonstrated that isoprenoid alcohols (polyprenols) such as farnesol (FOH) and geranylgeraniol (GGOH) can rescue parasites from fosmidomycin. This study better investigated how this rescue phenomenon occurs by performing drug-rescue assays. Similarly, to FOH and GGOH, it was observed that phytol (POH), a 20-carbon plant isoprenoid, as well as unsaponifiable lipid extracts from foods rescue parasites from the antimalarial effect of fosmidomycin. Contrarily, neither dolichols nor nonaprenol rescue parasites from fosmidomycin. Considering this, here we characterized the transport of FOH, GGOH, and POH. Once incorporated, it was observed that these substances are phosphorylated, condensed into longer isoprenoid alcohols, and incorporated into proteins and dolichyl phosphates. Through proteomic and radiolabelling approaches, it was found that prenylated proteins are naturally attached to several isoprenoids, derived from GGOH, dolichol, and POH if exogenously added. Furthermore, the results suggest the presence of at least two promiscuous protein prenyltransferases in the parasite: one enzyme which can use FPP among other unidentified substrates and another enzyme that can use GGPP, phytyl pyrophosphate (PPP), and dolichols, among other substrates not identified here. Thus, further evidence was obtained for dolichols and other isoprenoid products attached to proteins. This study helps to better understand the apicoplast-targeting antimalarial mechanism of action and a novel post-translational modification of proteins in P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi Bofill Verdaguer
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A C Sussmann
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Center for Environmental Sciences, Institute of Humanities, Arts and Sciences, Federal University of Southern Bahia, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Verônica Feijoli Santiago
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Giuseppe Palmisano
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Cândido Moura
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana Tonini Mesquita
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lydia Fumiko Yamaguchi
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Massuo Jorge Kato
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alejandro Miguel Katzin
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcell Crispim
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences of the University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Xu JJ, Zhang XF, Jiang Y, Fan H, Li JX, Li CY, Zhao Q, Yang L, Hu YH, Martin C, Chen XY. A unique flavoenzyme operates in ubiquinone biosynthesis in photosynthesis-related eukaryotes. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabl3594. [PMID: 34878842 PMCID: PMC8654299 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abl3594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is an electron transporter in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, yet the biosynthetic pathway in eukaryotes remains only partially resolved. C6-hydroxylation completes the benzoquinone ring full substitution, a hallmark of CoQ. Here, we show that plants use a unique flavin-dependent monooxygenase (CoqF), instead of di-iron enzyme (Coq7) operating in animals and fungi, as a C6-hydroxylase. CoqF evolved early in eukaryotes and became widely distributed in photosynthetic and related organisms ranging from plants, algae, apicomplexans, and euglenids. Independent alternative gene losses in different groups and lateral gene transfer have ramified CoqF across the eukaryotic tree with predominance in green lineages. The exclusive presence of CoqF in Streptophyta hints at an association of the flavoenzyme with photoautotrophy in terrestrial environments. CoqF provides a phylogenetic marker distinguishing eukaryotes and represents a previously unknown target for drug design against parasitic protists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Jing Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Xiao-Fan Zhang
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Information Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Jiang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
- School of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
| | - Hang Fan
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Jian-Xu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences/Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, University of CAS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Chen-Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences/Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, University of CAS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qing Zhao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Yong-Hong Hu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Cathie Martin
- John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Xiao-Ya Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Resources, Plant Science Research Center, Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, Shanghai 201602, China
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences/Shanghai Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, University of CAS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
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