Metabolite Sequestration Enables Rapid Recovery from Fatty Acid Depletion in Escherichia coli

Design principles for engineering bacteria to maximise chemical production from batch cultures

Bacteria can be engineered to manufacture chemicals, but it is unclear how to optimally engineer a single cell to maximise production performance from batch cultures. Moreover, the performance of engineered production pathways is affected by competition for the host's native resources. Here, using a 'host-aware' computational framework which captures competition for both metabolic and gene expression resources, we uncover design principles for engineering the expression of host and production enzymes at the cell level which maximise volumetric productivity and yield from batch cultures. However, this does not break the fundamental growth-synthesis trade-off which limits production performance. We show that engineering genetic circuits to switch cells to a high synthesis-low growth state after first growing to a large population can further improve performance. By analysing different circuit topologies, we show that highest performance is achieved by circuits that inhibit host metabolism to redirect it to product synthesis. Our results should facilitate construction of microbial cell factories with high and efficient production capabilities.

The ability in managing reactive oxygen species affects Escherichia coli persistence to ampicillin after nutrient shifts

Bacterial persistence profoundly impacts biofilms, infections, and antibiotic effectiveness. Persister formation can be substantially promoted by nutrient shift, which commonly exists in natural environments. However, mechanisms that promote persister formation remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the persistence frequency of Escherichia coli after switching from various carbon sources to fatty acid and observed drastically different survival rates. While more than 99.9% of cells died during a 24-hour ampicillin (AMP) treatment after the glycerol to oleic acid (GLY → OA + AMP) shift, a surprising 56% of cells survived the same antibiotic treatment after the glucose to oleic acid (GLU → OOA + AMP) shift. Using a combination of single-cell imaging and time-lapse microscopy, we discovered that the induction of high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by AMP is the primary mechanism of cell killing after switching from gluconeogenic carbons to OA + AMP. Moreover, the timing of the ROS burst is highly correlated (R2 = 0.91) with the start of the rapid killing phase in the time-kill curves for all gluconeogenic carbons. However, ROS did not accumulate to lethal levels after the GLU → OA + AMP shift. We also found that the overexpression of the oxidative stress regulator and ROS detoxification enzymes strongly affects the amounts of ROS and the persistence frequency following the nutritional shift. These findings elucidate the different persister frequencies resulting from various nutrient shifts and underscore the pivotal role of ROS. Our study provides insights into bacterial persistence mechanisms, holding promise for targeted therapeutic interventions combating bacterial resistance effectively.

IMPORTANCE

This research delves into the intriguing realm of bacterial persistence and its profound implications for biofilms, infections, and antibiotic efficacy. The study focuses on Escherichia coli and how the switch from different carbon sources to fatty acids influences the formation of persister-resilient bacterial cells resistant to antibiotics. The findings reveal a striking variation in survival rates, with a significant number of cells surviving ampicillin treatment after transitioning from glucose to oleic acid. The key revelation is the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cell killing, particularly after switching from gluconeogenic carbons. The timing of ROS bursts aligns with the rapid killing phase, highlighting the critical impact of oxidative stress regulation on persistence frequency. This research provides valuable insights into bacterial persistence mechanisms, offering potential avenues for targeted therapeutic interventions to combat bacterial resistance effectively.

Local flux coordination and global gene expression regulation in metabolic modeling

Genome-scale metabolic networks (GSMs) are fundamental systems biology representations of a cell's entire set of stoichiometrically balanced reactions. However, such static GSMs do not incorporate the functional organization of metabolic genes and their dynamic regulation (e.g., operons and regulons). Specifically, there are numerous topologically coupled local reactions through which fluxes are coordinated; the global growth state often dynamically regulates many gene expression of metabolic reactions via global transcription factor regulators. Here, we develop a GSM reconstruction method, Decrem, by integrating locally coupled reactions and global transcriptional regulation of metabolism by cell state. Decrem produces predictions of flux and growth rates, which are highly correlated with those experimentally measured in both wild-type and mutants of three model microorganisms Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Bacillus subtilis under various conditions. More importantly, Decrem can also explain the observed growth rates by capturing the experimentally measured flux changes between wild-types and mutants. Overall, by identifying and incorporating locally organized and regulated functional modules into GSMs, Decrem achieves accurate predictions of phenotypes and has broad applications in bioengineering, synthetic biology, and microbial pathology.

Bayesian Optimization for Design of Multiscale Biological Circuits

Recent advances in synthetic biology have enabled the construction of molecular circuits that operate across multiple scales of cellular organization, such as gene regulation, signaling pathways, and cellular metabolism. Computational optimization can effectively aid the design process, but current methods are generally unsuited for systems with multiple temporal or concentration scales, as these are slow to simulate due to their numerical stiffness. Here, we present a machine learning method for the efficient optimization of biological circuits across scales. The method relies on Bayesian optimization, a technique commonly used to fine-tune deep neural networks, to learn the shape of a performance landscape and iteratively navigate the design space toward an optimal circuit. This strategy allows the joint optimization of both circuit architecture and parameters, and provides a feasible approach to solve a highly nonconvex optimization problem in a mixed-integer input space. We illustrate the applicability of the method on several gene circuits for controlling biosynthetic pathways with strong nonlinearities, multiple interacting scales, and using various performance objectives. The method efficiently handles large multiscale problems and enables parametric sweeps to assess circuit robustness to perturbations, serving as an efficient in silico screening method prior to experimental implementation.

Applications and Tuning Strategies for Transcription Factor-Based Metabolite Biosensors

Transcription factor (TF)-based biosensors are widely used for the detection of metabolites and the regulation of cellular pathways in response to metabolites. Several challenges hinder the direct application of TF-based sensors to new hosts or metabolic pathways, which often requires extensive tuning to achieve the optimal performance. These tuning strategies can involve transcriptional or translational control depending on the parameter of interest. In this review, we highlight recent strategies for engineering TF-based biosensors to obtain the desired performance and discuss additional design considerations that may influence a biosensor's performance. We also examine applications of these sensors and suggest important areas for further work to continue the advancement of small-molecule biosensors.

Diverse mechanisms of bioproduction heterogeneity in fermentation and their control strategies

Microbial bioproduction often faces challenges related to populational heterogeneity, where cells exhibit varying biosynthesis capabilities. Bioproduction heterogeneity can stem from genetic and non-genetic factors, resulting in decreased titer, yield, stability, and reproducibility. Consequently, understanding and controlling bioproduction heterogeneity are crucial for enhancing the economic competitiveness of large-scale biomanufacturing. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of current understandings of the various mechanisms underlying bioproduction heterogeneity. Additionally, we examine common strategies for controlling bioproduction heterogeneity based on these mechanisms. By implementing more robust measures to mitigate heterogeneity, we anticipate substantial enhancements in the scalability and stability of bioproduction processes.

ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARY

This review summarizes current understandings of different mechanisms of bioproduction heterogeneity and common control strategies based on these mechanisms.

The Growth Dependent Design Constraints of Transcription-Factor-Based Metabolite Biosensors

Metabolite biosensors based on metabolite-responsive transcription factors are key synthetic biology components for sensing and precisely controlling cellular metabolism. Biosensors are often designed under laboratory conditions but are deployed in applications where cellular growth rate differs drastically from its initial characterization. Here we asked how growth rate impacts the minimum and maximum biosensor outputs and the dynamic range, which are key metrics of biosensor performance. Using LacI, TetR, and FadR-based biosensors in Escherichia coli as models, we find that the dynamic range of different biosensors have different growth rate dependencies. We developed a kinetic model to explore how tuning biosensor parameters impact the dynamic range growth rate dependence. Our modeling and experimental results revealed that the effects to dynamic range and its growth rate dependence are often coupled, and the metabolite transport mechanisms shape the dynamic range-growth rate response. This work provides a systematic understanding of biosensor performance under different growth rates, which will be useful for predicting biosensor behavior in broad synthetic biology and metabolic engineering applications.

Transient Antibiotic Tolerance Triggered by Nutrient Shifts From Gluconeogenic Carbon Sources to Fatty Acid

Nutrient shifts from glycolytic-to-gluconeogenic carbon sources can create large sub-populations of extremely antibiotic tolerant bacteria, called persisters. Positive feedback in Escherichia coli central metabolism was believed to play a key role in the formation of persister cells. To examine whether positive feedback in nutrient transport can also support high persistence to β-lactams, we performed nutrient shifts for E. coli from gluconeogenic carbon sources to fatty acid (FA). We observed tri-phasic antibiotic killing kinetics characterized by a transient period of high antibiotic tolerance, followed by rapid killing then a slower persister-killing phase. The duration of transient tolerance (3-44 h) varies with pre-shift carbon source and correlates strongly with the time needed to accumulate the FA degradation enzyme FadD after the shift. Additionally, FadD accumulation time and thus transient tolerance time can be reduced by induction of the glyoxylate bypass prior to switching, highlighting that two interacting feedback loops simultaneously control the length of transient tolerance. Our results demonstrate that nutrient switches along with positive feedback are not sufficient to trigger persistence in a majority of the population but instead triggers only a temporary tolerance. Additionally, our results demonstrate that the pre-shift metabolic state determines the duration of transient tolerance and that supplying glyoxylate can facilitate antibiotic killing of bacteria.

Designing an irreversible metabolic switch for scalable induction of microbial chemical production

Bacteria can be harnessed to synthesise high-value chemicals. A promising strategy for increasing productivity uses inducible control systems to switch metabolism from growth to chemical synthesis once a large population of cell factories are generated. However, use of expensive chemical inducers limits scalability of this approach for biotechnological applications. Switching using cheap nutrients is an appealing alternative, but their tightly regulated uptake and consumption again limits scalability. Here, using mathematical models of fatty acid uptake in E. coli as an exemplary case study, we unravel how the cell's native regulation and program of induction can be engineered to minimise inducer usage. We show that integrating positive feedback loops into the circuitry creates an irreversible metabolic switch, which, requiring only temporary induction, drastically reduces inducer usage. Our proposed switch should be widely applicable, irrespective of the product of interest, and brings closer the realization of scalable and sustainable microbial chemical production.

Opportunities at the Interface of Network Science and Metabolic Modeling

Metabolism plays a central role in cell physiology because it provides the molecular machinery for growth. At the genome-scale, metabolism is made up of thousands of reactions interacting with one another. Untangling this complexity is key to understand how cells respond to genetic, environmental, or therapeutic perturbations. Here we discuss the roles of two complementary strategies for the analysis of genome-scale metabolic models: Flux Balance Analysis (FBA) and network science. While FBA estimates metabolic flux on the basis of an optimization principle, network approaches reveal emergent properties of the global metabolic connectivity. We highlight how the integration of both approaches promises to deliver insights on the structure and function of metabolic systems with wide-ranging implications in discovery science, precision medicine and industrial biotechnology.

Prediction of Cellular Burden with Host-Circuit Models

Heterologous gene expression draws resources from host cells. These resources include vital components to sustain growth and replication, and the resulting cellular burden is a widely recognized bottleneck in the design of robust circuits. In this tutorial we discuss the use of computational models that integrate gene circuits and the physiology of host cells. Through various use cases, we illustrate the power of host-circuit models to predict the impact of design parameters on both burden and circuit functionality. Our approach relies on a new generation of computational models for microbial growth that can flexibly accommodate resource bottlenecks encountered in gene circuit design. Adoption of this modeling paradigm can facilitate fast and robust design cycles in synthetic biology.

Dynamic control in metabolic engineering: Theories, tools, and applications

Metabolic engineering has allowed the production of a diverse number of valuable chemicals using microbial organisms. Many biological challenges for improving bio-production exist which limit performance and slow the commercialization of metabolically engineered systems. Dynamic metabolic engineering is a rapidly developing field that seeks to address these challenges through the design of genetically encoded metabolic control systems which allow cells to autonomously adjust their flux in response to their external and internal metabolic state. This review first discusses theoretical works which provide mechanistic insights and design choices for dynamic control systems including two-stage, continuous, and population behavior control strategies. Next, we summarize molecular mechanisms for various sensors and actuators which enable dynamic metabolic control in microbial systems. Finally, important applications of dynamic control to the production of several metabolite products are highlighted, including fatty acids, aromatics, and terpene compounds. Altogether, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the progress, advances, and prospects in the design of dynamic control systems for improved titer, rate, and yield metrics in metabolic engineering.

The Escherichia coli FadR transcription factor: Too much of a good thing?

Escherichia coli FadR is a transcription factor regulated by acyl-CoA thioester binding that optimizes fatty acid (FA) metabolism in response to environmental FAs. FadR represses the fad genes of FA degradation (β-oxidation) and activates the fab genes of FA synthesis thereby allowing E. coli to have its cake (acyl chains for phospholipid synthesis) and eat it (degrade acyl chains to acetyl-CoA). Acyl-CoA binding of FadR derepresses the transcription of the fad genes and cancels fab gene transcriptional activation. Activation of fab genes was thought restricted to the fabA and fabB genes of unsaturated FA synthesis, but FadR overproduction markedly increases yields of all FA acyl chains. Subsequently, almost all of the remaining fab genes were shown to be transcriptionally activated by FadR binding, but binding was very weak. Why are the low-affinity sites retained? What effects on cell physiology would result from their conversion to high-affinity sites (thereby mimicking FadR overproduction)? Investigations of E. coli cell size determinants showed that FA synthesis primarily determines E. coli cell size. Upon modest induction of FadR, cell size increases, but at the cost of growth rate and accumulation of intracellular membranes. Greater induction resulted in further growth rate decreases and abnormal cells. Hence, too much FadR is bad. FadR is extraordinarily conserved in γ-proteobacteria but has migrated. Mycobacterium tuberculosis encodes FadR orthologs one of which is functional in E. coli. Strikingly, the FadR theme of acyl-CoA-dependent transcriptional regulation is found in a different transcription factor family where two Bacillus species plus bacterial and archaeal thermophiles contain related proteins of similar function.

Coupling metabolic addiction with negative autoregulation to improve strain stability and pathway yield

Metabolic addiction, an organism that is metabolically addicted with a compound to maintain its growth fitness, is an underexplored area in metabolic engineering. Microbes with heavily engineered pathways or genetic circuits tend to experience metabolic burden leading to degenerated or abortive production phenotype during long-term cultivation or scale-up. A promising solution to combat metabolic instability is to tie up the end-product with an intermediary metabolite that is essential to the growth of the producing host. Here we present a simple strategy to improve both metabolic stability and pathway yield by coupling chemical addiction with negative autoregulatory genetic circuits. Naringenin and lipids compete for the same precursor malonyl-CoA with inversed pathway yield in oleaginous yeast. Negative autoregulation of the lipogenic pathways, enabled by CRISPRi and fatty acid-inducible promoters, repartitions malonyl-CoA to favor flavonoid synthesis and increased naringenin production by 74.8%. With flavonoid-sensing transcriptional activator FdeR and yeast hybrid promoters to control leucine synthesis and cell grwoth fitness, this amino acid feedforward metabolic circuit confers a flavonoid addiction phenotype that selectively enrich the naringenin-producing pupulation in the leucine auxotrophic yeast. The engineered yeast persisted 90.9% of naringenin titer up to 324 generations. Cells without flavonoid addiction regained growth fitness but lost 94.5% of the naringenin titer after cell passage beyond 300 generations. Metabolic addiction and negative autoregulation may be generalized as basic tools to eliminate metabolic heterogeneity, improve strain stability and pathway yield in long-term and large-scale bioproduction.

Control strategies to manage trade-offs during microbial production

When engineering microbes to overproduce a target molecule, engineers face multiple layers of trade-offs to allocate limited cellular resources between the target pathway and native cellular systems. These trade-offs arise from limited free ribosomes during translation, competition for metabolic precursors, as well as the negative relationship between production and growth rate. To achieve high production performance, microbes need to spontaneously make decisions in the dynamic and heterogeneous fermentation environment. In this review, we discuss recent advances in microbial control strategies that are used to manage these trade-offs and to improve microbial production. This review focuses on design principles and compares different implementations, with the hope to provide guidelines to future microbial engineering.