Sites of acetylation on newly synthesized histone H4 are required for chromatin assembly and DNA damage response signaling

Turning sour into sweet: Lactylation modification as a promising target in cardiovascular health

Lactylation, a recently identified posttranslational modification (PTM), has emerged as a critical regulatory mechanism in cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). This PTM involves the addition of lactyl groups to lysine residues on histones and nonhistone proteins, influencing gene expression and cellular metabolism. The discovery of lactylation has revealed new directions for understanding metabolic and immune processes, particularly in the context of CVDs. This review describes the intricate roles of specific lactylated proteins and enzymes, such as H3K18, HMGB1, MCT1/4, and LDH, in the regulation of cardiovascular pathology. This study also highlights the unique impact of lactylation on myocardial hypertrophy and distinguishes it from other PTMs, such as SUMOylation and acetylation, underscoring its potential as a therapeutic target. Emerging drugs targeting lactate transporters and critical enzymes involved in lactylation offer promising avenues for novel CVD therapies. This review calls for further research to elucidate the mechanisms linking lactylation to CVDs, emphasizing the need for comprehensive studies at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels to pave the way for innovative preventive, diagnostic, and treatment strategies in cardiovascular medicine.

Crosstalk between metabolic and epigenetic modifications during cell carcinogenesis

Genetic mutations arising from various internal and external factors drive cells to become cancerous. Cancerous cells undergo numerous changes, including metabolic reprogramming and epigenetic modifications, to support their abnormal proliferation. This metabolic reprogramming leads to the altered expression of many metabolic enzymes and the accumulation of metabolites. Recent studies have shown that these enzymes and metabolites can serve as substrates or cofactors for chromatin-modifying enzymes, thereby participating in epigenetic modifications and promoting carcinogenesis. Additionally, epigenetic modifications play a role in the metabolic reprogramming and immune evasion of cancer cells, influencing cancer progression. This review focuses on the origins of cancer, particularly the metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells and changes in epigenetic modifications. We discuss how metabolites in cancer cells contribute to epigenetic remodeling, including lactylation, acetylation, succinylation, and crotonylation. Finally, we review the impact of epigenetic modifications on tumor immunity and the latest advancements in cancer therapies targeting these modifications.

The Role of Histone Modification in DNA Replication-Coupled Nucleosome Assembly and Cancer

Histone modification regulates replication-coupled nucleosome assembly, DNA damage repair, and gene transcription. Changes or mutations in factors involved in nucleosome assembly are closely related to the development and pathogenesis of cancer and other human diseases and are essential for maintaining genomic stability and epigenetic information transmission. In this review, we discuss the role of different types of histone posttranslational modifications in DNA replication-coupled nucleosome assembly and disease. In recent years, histone modification has been found to affect the deposition of newly synthesized histones and the repair of DNA damage, further affecting the assembly process of DNA replication-coupled nucleosomes. We summarize the role of histone modification in the nucleosome assembly process. At the same time, we review the mechanism of histone modification in cancer development and briefly describe the application of histone modification small molecule inhibitors in cancer therapy.

The Role of PARP1 and PAR in ATP-Independent Nucleosome Reorganisation during the DNA Damage Response

The functioning of the eukaryotic cell genome is mediated by sophisticated protein-nucleic-acid complexes, whose minimal structural unit is the nucleosome. After the damage to genomic DNA, repair proteins need to gain access directly to the lesion; therefore, the initiation of the DNA damage response inevitably leads to local chromatin reorganisation. This review focuses on the possible involvement of PARP1, as well as proteins acting nucleosome compaction, linker histone H1 and non-histone chromatin protein HMGB1. The polymer of ADP-ribose is considered the main regulator during the development of the DNA damage response and in the course of assembly of the correct repair complex.

Post-Translational Modifications by Lipid Metabolites during the DNA Damage Response and Their Role in Cancer

Genomic DNA damage occurs as an inevitable consequence of exposure to harmful exogenous and endogenous agents. Therefore, the effective sensing and repair of DNA damage are essential for maintaining genomic stability and cellular homeostasis. Inappropriate responses to DNA damage can lead to genomic instability and, ultimately, cancer. Protein post-translational modifications (PTMs) are a key regulator of the DNA damage response (DDR), and recent progress in mass spectrometry analysis methods has revealed that a wide range of metabolites can serve as donors for PTMs. In this review, we will summarize how the DDR is regulated by lipid metabolite-associated PTMs, including acetylation, S-succinylation, N-myristoylation, palmitoylation, and crotonylation, and the implications for tumorigenesis. We will also discuss potential novel targets for anti-cancer drug development.

The asymmetric distribution of RNA polymerase II and nucleosomes on replicated daughter genomes is caused by differences in replication timing between the lagging and the leading strand

Chromatin features are thought to have a role in the epigenetic transmission of transcription states from one cell generation to the next. It is unclear how chromatin structure survives disruptions caused by genomic replication or whether chromatin features are instructive of the transcription state of the underlying gene. We developed a method to monitor budding yeast replication, transcription, and chromatin maturation dynamics on each daughter genome in parallel, with which we identified clusters of secondary origins surrounding known origins. We found a difference in the timing of lagging and leading strand replication on the order of minutes at most yeast genes. We propose a model in which the majority of old histones and RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) bind to the gene copy that replicated first, while newly synthesized nucleosomes are assembled on the copy that replicated second. RNAPII enrichment then shifts to the sister copy that replicated second. The order of replication is largely determined by genic orientation: If transcription and replication are codirectional, the leading strand replicates first; if they are counterdirectional, the lagging strand replicates first. A mutation in the Mcm2 subunit of the replicative helicase Mcm2-7 that impairs Mcm2 interactions with histone H3 slows down replication forks but does not qualitatively change the asymmetry in nucleosome distribution observed in the WT. We propose that active transcription states are inherited simultaneously and independently of their underlying chromatin states through the recycling of the transcription machinery and old histones, respectively. Transcription thus actively contributes to the reestablishment of the active chromatin state.

Chromatin dynamics and DNA replication roadblocks

A broad spectrum of spontaneous and genotoxin-induced DNA lesions impede replication fork progression. The DNA damage response that acts to promote completion of DNA replication is associated with dynamic changes in chromatin structure that include two distinct processes which operate genome-wide during S-phase. The first, often referred to as histone recycling or parental histone segregation, is characterized by the transfer of parental histones located ahead of replication forks onto nascent DNA. The second, known as de novo chromatin assembly, consists of the deposition of new histone molecules onto nascent DNA. Because these two processes occur at all replication forks, their potential to influence a multitude of DNA repair and DNA damage tolerance mechanisms is considerable. The purpose of this review is to provide a description of parental histone segregation and de novo chromatin assembly, and to illustrate how these processes influence cellular responses to DNA replication roadblocks.

Histone Epigenetic Signatures in Embryonic Limb Interdigital Cells Fated to Die

During limb formation in vertebrates with free digits, the interdigital mesoderm is eliminated by a massive degeneration process that involves apoptosis and cell senescence. The degradation process is preceded by intense DNA damage in zones located close to methylated DNA, accompanied by the activation of the DNA repair response. In this study, we show that trimethylated histone 3 (H3K4me3, H3K9me3, and H3K27me3) overlaps with zones positive for 5mC in the nuclei of interdigital cells. This pattern contrasts with the widespread distribution of acetylated histones (H3K9ac and H4ac) and the histone variant H3.3 throughout the nucleoplasm. Consistent with the intense labeling of acetylated histones, the histone deacetylase genes Hdac1, Hdac2, Hdac3, and Hdac8, and at a more reduced level, Hdac10, are expressed in the interdigits. Furthermore, local treatments with the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A, which promotes an open chromatin state, induces massive cell death and transcriptional changes reminiscent of, but preceding, the physiological process of interdigit remodeling. Together, these findings suggest that the epigenetic profile of the interdigital mesoderm contributes to the sensitivity to DNA damage that precedes apoptosis during tissue regression.

Histone acetyltransferase 1 is required for DNA replication fork function and stability

The replisome is a protein complex on the DNA replication fork and functions in a dynamic environment at the intersection of parental and nascent chromatin. Parental nucleosomes are disrupted in front of the replication fork. The daughter DNA duplexes are packaged with an equal amount of parental and newly synthesized histones in the wake of the replication fork through the activity of the replication-coupled chromatin assembly pathway. Histone acetyltransferase 1 (HAT1) is responsible for the cytosolic diacetylation of newly synthesized histone H4 on lysines 5 and 12, which accompanies replication-coupled chromatin assembly. Here, using proximity ligation assay-based chromatin assembly assays and DNA fiber analysis, we analyzed the role of murine HAT1 in replication-coupled chromatin assembly. We demonstrate that HAT1 physically associates with chromatin near DNA replication sites. We found that the association of HAT1 with newly replicated DNA is transient, but can be stabilized by replication fork stalling. The association of HAT1 with nascent chromatin may be functionally relevant, as HAT1 loss decreased replication fork progression and increased replication fork stalling. Moreover, in the absence of HAT1, stalled replication forks were unstable, and newly synthesized DNA became susceptible to MRE11-dependent degradation. These results suggest that HAT1 links replication fork function to the proper processing and assembly of newly synthesized histones.

Fluctuations of Histone Chemical Modifications in Breast, Prostate, and Colorectal Cancer: An Implication of Phytochemicals as Defenders of Chromatin Equilibrium

Natural substances of plant origin exert health beneficiary efficacy due to the content of various phytochemicals. Significant anticancer abilities of natural compounds are mediated via various processes such as regulation of a cell's epigenome. The potential antineoplastic activity of plant natural substances mediated by their action on posttranslational histone modifications (PHMs) is currently a highly evaluated area of cancer research. PHMs play an important role in maintaining chromatin structure and regulating gene expression. Aberrations in PHMs are directly linked to the process of carcinogenesis in cancer such as breast (BC), prostate (PC), and colorectal (CRC) cancer, common malignant diseases in terms of incidence and mortality among both men and women. This review summarizes the effects of plant phytochemicals (isolated or mixtures) on cancer-associated PHMs (mainly modulation of acetylation and methylation) resulting in alterations of chromatin structure that are related to the regulation of transcription activity of specific oncogenes, which are crucial in the development of BC, PC, and CRC. Significant effectiveness of natural compounds in the modulation of aberrant PHMs were confirmed by a number of in vitro or in vivo studies in preclinical cancer research. However, evidence concerning PHMs-modulating abilities of plant-based natural substances in clinical trials is insufficient.

Hat1 acetylates histone H4 and modulates the transcriptional program in Drosophila embryogenesis

Post-translational modifications of histone proteins play a pivotal role in DNA packaging and regulation of genome functions. Histone acetyltransferase 1 (Hat1) proteins are conserved enzymes that modify histones by acetylating lysine residues. Hat1 is implicated in chromatin assembly and DNA repair but its role in cell functions is not clearly elucidated. We report the generation and characterization of a Hat1 loss-of-function mutant in Drosophila. Hat1 mutants are viable and fertile with a mild sub-lethal phenotype showing that Hat1 is not essential in fruit flies. Lack of Hat1 results in the near complete loss of histone H4 lysine (K) 5 and K12 acetylation in embryos, indicating that Hat1 is the main acetyltransferase specific for these marks in this developmental stage. We found that Hat1 function and the presence of these acetyl marks are not required for the nuclear transport of histone H4 as histone variant His4r retained its nuclear localization both in Hat1 mutants and in His4r-K5R-K12R double point mutants. RNA-seq analysis of embryos indicate that in Hat1 mutants over 2000 genes are dysregulated and the observed transcriptional changes imply a delay in the developmental program of gene expression.

Early-onset aging and mitochondrial defects associated with loss of histone acetyltransferase 1 (Hat1)

Histone acetyltransferase 1 (Hat1) is responsible for the acetylation of newly synthesized histone H4 on lysines 5 and 12 during the process of chromatin assembly. To understand the broader biological role of Hat1, we have generated a conditional mouse knockout model of this enzyme. We previously reported that Hat1 is required for viability and important for mammalian development and genome stability. In this study, we show that haploinsufficiency of Hat1 results in a significant decrease in lifespan. Defects observed in Hat1^+/− mice are consistent with an early‐onset aging phenotype. These include lordokyphosis (hunchback), muscle atrophy, minor growth retardation, reduced subcutaneous fat, cancer, and paralysis. In addition, the expression of Hat1 is linked to the normal aging process as Hat1 mRNA and protein becomes undetectable in many tissues in old mice. At the cellular level, fibroblasts from Hat1 haploinsufficient embryos undergo early senescence and accumulate high levels of p21. Hat1^+/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) display modest increases in endogenous DNA damage but have significantly higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Consistently, further studies show that Hat1^−/− MEFs exhibit mitochondrial defects suggesting a critical role for Hat1 in mitochondrial function. Taken together, these data show that loss of Hat1 induces multiple hallmarks of early‐onset aging.

DNA G-Quadruplexes (G4s) Modulate Epigenetic (Re)Programming and Chromatin Remodeling: Transient Genomic G4s Assist in the Establishment and Maintenance of Epigenetic Marks, While Persistent G4s May Erase Epigenetic Marks

Here, the emerging data on DNA G-quadruplexes (G4s) as epigenetic modulators are reviewed and integrated. This concept has appeared and evolved substantially in recent years. First, persistent G4s (e.g., those stabilized by exogenous ligands) were linked to the loss of the histone code. More recently, transient G4s (i.e., those formed upon replication or transcription and unfolded rapidly by helicases) were implicated in CpG island methylation maintenance and de novo CpG methylation control. The most recent data indicate that there are direct interactions between G4s and chromatin remodeling factors. Finally, multiple findings support the indirect participation of G4s in chromatin reshaping via interactions with remodeling-related transcription factors (TFs) or damage responders. Here, the links between the above processes are analyzed; also, how further elucidation of these processes may stimulate the progress of epigenetic therapy is discussed, and the remaining open questions are highlighted.

Detection and Quantitation of Acetylated Histones on Replicating DNA Using In Situ Proximity Ligation Assay and Click-It Chemistry

Histone acetylation plays important roles in the regulation of DNA transcription, repair, and replication. Here we detail a method for quantitative detection of specific histone modifications in the nascent chromatin at or behind replication forks in vivo in cultured cells. The method involves labeling DNA with EdU, using Click chemistry to biotinylate EdU moieties in DNA, and then using in situ proximity ligation assay (PLA) to selectively visualize co-localization of EdU with a modified histone of choice recognized by a modification-specific antibody. We focus on detection of acetylated histones H3 and H4 in the nascent chromatin of cultured human cells as a specific example of the method's application. Notably, the method is fully applicable to studies of histones or nonhistone proteins expected to be present on nascent DNA or at replication forks, and has been successfully used in model organisms and human tissue culture.

Targeting histones for degradation in cancer cells as a novel strategy in cancer treatment

The anticancer therapies with the joint treatment of a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor and a DNA-damaging approach are actively under clinical investigations, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Histone homeostasis is critical to genome stability, transcriptional accuracy, DNA repair process, senescence, and survival. We have previously demonstrated that the HDAC inhibitor, trichostatin A (TSA), could promote the degradation of the core histones induced by γ-radiation or the DNAalkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) in non-cancer cells, including mouse spermatocyte and embryonic fibroblast cell lines. In this study, we found that the joint treatment by TSA and MMS induced the death of the cultured cancer cells with an additive effect, but induced degradation of the core histones synergistically in these cells. We then analyzed various combinations of other HDAC inhibitors, including suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid and valproate sodium, with MMS or other DNAdamaging agents, including etoposide and camptothecin. Most of these combined treatments induced cell death additively, but all the tested combinations induced degradation of the core histones synergistically. Meanwhile, we showed that cell cycle arrest might not be a primary consequence for the joint treatment of TSA and MMS. Given that clinic treatments of cancers jointly with an HDAC inhibitor and a DNA-damaging approach often show synergistic effects, histone degradation might more accurately underlie the synergistic effects of these joint treatments in clinic applications than other parameters, such as cell death and cell cycle arrest. Thus, our studies might suggest that the degradation of the core histones can serve as a new target for the development of cancer therapies.

Mechanistic insights into histone deposition and nucleosome assembly by the chromatin assembly factor-1

Eukaryotic chromatin is a highly dynamic structure with essential roles in virtually all DNA-dependent cellular processes. Nucleosomes are a barrier to DNA access, and during DNA replication, they are disassembled ahead of the replication machinery (the replisome) and reassembled following its passage. The Histone chaperone Chromatin Assembly Factor-1 (CAF-1) interacts with the replisome and deposits H3-H4 directly onto newly synthesized DNA. Therefore, CAF-1 is important for the establishment and propagation of chromatin structure. The molecular mechanism by which CAF-1 mediates H3-H4 deposition has remained unclear. However, recent studies have revealed new insights into the architecture and stoichiometry of the trimeric CAF-1 complex and how it interacts with and deposits H3-H4 onto substrate DNA. The CAF-1 trimer binds to a single H3-H4 dimer, which induces a conformational rearrangement in CAF-1 promoting its interaction with substrate DNA. Two CAF-1•H3-H4 complexes co-associate on nucleosome-free DNA depositing (H3-H4)2 tetramers in the first step of nucleosome assembly. Here, we review the progress made in our understanding of CAF-1 structure, mechanism of action, and how CAF-1 contributes to chromatin dynamics during DNA replication.

Rpb9-deficient cells are defective in DNA damage response and require histone H3 acetylation for survival

Rpb9 is a non-essential subunit of RNA polymerase II that is involved in DNA transcription and repair. In budding yeast, deletion of RPB9 causes several phenotypes such as slow growth and temperature sensitivity. We found that simultaneous mutation of multiple N-terminal lysines within histone H3 was lethal in rpb9Δ cells. Our results indicate that hypoacetylation of H3 leads to inefficient repair of DNA double-strand breaks, while activation of the DNA damage checkpoint regulators γH2A and Rad53 is suppressed in Rpb9-deficient cells. Combination of H3 hypoacetylation with the loss of Rpb9 leads to genomic instability, aberrant segregation of chromosomes in mitosis, and eventually to cell death. These results indicate that H3 acetylation becomes essential for efficient DNA repair and cell survival if a DNA damage checkpoint is defective.

PP32 and SET/TAF-Iβ proteins regulate the acetylation of newly synthesized histone H4

Newly synthesized histones H3 and H4 undergo a cascade of maturation steps to achieve proper folding and to establish post-translational modifications prior to chromatin deposition. Acetylation of H4 on lysines 5 and 12 by the HAT1 acetyltransferase is observed late in the histone maturation cascade. A key question is to understand how to establish and regulate the distinct timing of sequential modifications and their biological significance. Here, we perform proteomic analysis of the newly synthesized histone H4 complex at the earliest time point in the cascade. In addition to known binding partners Hsp90 and Hsp70, we also identify for the first time two subunits of the histone acetyltransferase inhibitor complex (INHAT): PP32 and SET/TAF-Iβ. We show that both proteins function to prevent HAT1-mediated H4 acetylation in vitro. When PP32 and SET/TAF-Iβ protein levels are down-regulated in vivo, we detect hyperacetylation on lysines 5 and 12 and other H4 lysine residues. Notably, aberrantly acetylated H4 is less stable and this reduces the interaction with Hsp90. As a consequence, PP32 and SET/TAF-Iβ depleted cells show an S-phase arrest. Our data demonstrate a novel function of PP32 and SET/TAF-Iβ and provide new insight into the mechanisms regulating acetylation of newly synthesized histone H4.

Identification of multiple roles for histone acetyltransferase 1 in replication-coupled chromatin assembly

Histone acetyltransferase 1 (Hat1) catalyzes the acetylation of newly synthesized histone H4 at lysines 5 and 12 that accompanies replication-coupled chromatin assembly. The acetylation of newly synthesized H4 occurs in the cytoplasm and the function of this acetylation is typically ascribed to roles in either histone nuclear import or deposition. Using cell lines from Hat1^+/+ and Hat1^−/− mouse embryos, we demonstrate that Hat1 is not required for either histone nuclear import or deposition. We employed quantitative proteomics to characterize Hat1-dependent changes in the composition of nascent chromatin structure. Among the proteins depleted from nascent chromatin isolated from Hat1^−/− cells are several bromodomain-containing proteins, including Brg1, Baz1A and Brd3. Analysis of the binding specificity of their bromodomains suggests that Hat1-dependent acetylation of H4 is directly involved in their recruitment. Hat1^−/− nascent chromatin is enriched for topoisomerase 2α and 2β. The enrichment of topoisomerase 2 is functionally relevant as Hat1^−/− cells are hyper-sensitive to topoisomerase 2 inhibition suggesting that Hat1 is required for proper chromatin topology. In addition, our results indicate that Hat1 is transiently recruited to sites of chromatin assembly, dissociating prior to the maturation of chromatin structure.

The Role of Histone Protein Modifications and Mutations in Histone Modifiers in Pediatric B-Cell Progenitor Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

While cancer has been long recognized as a disease of the genome, the importance of epigenetic mechanisms in neoplasia was acknowledged more recently. The most active epigenetic marks are DNA methylation and histone protein modifications and they are involved in basic biological phenomena in every cell. Their role in tumorigenesis is stressed by recent unbiased large-scale studies providing evidence that several epigenetic modifiers are recurrently mutated or frequently dysregulated in multiple cancers. The interest in epigenetic marks is especially due to the fact that they are potentially reversible and thus druggable. In B-cell progenitor acute lymphoblastic leukemia (BCP-ALL) there is a relative paucity of reports on the role of histone protein modifications (acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation) as compared to acute myeloid leukemia, T-cell ALL, or other hematologic cancers, and in this setting chromatin modifications are relatively less well studied and reviewed than DNA methylation. In this paper, we discuss the biomarker associations and evidence for a driver role of dysregulated global and loci-specific histone marks, as well as mutations in epigenetic modifiers in BCP-ALL. Examples of chromatin modifiers recurrently mutated/disrupted in BCP-ALL and associated with disease outcomes include MLL1, CREBBP, NSD2, and SETD2. Altered histone marks and histone modifiers and readers may play a particular role in disease chemoresistance and relapse. We also suggest that epigenetic regulation of B-cell differentiation may have parallel roles in leukemogenesis.

Histone hypoacetylation-activated genes are repressed by acetyl-CoA- and chromatin-mediated mechanism

Transcriptional activation is typically associated with increased acetylation of promoter histones. However, this paradigm does not apply to transcriptional activation of all genes. In this study we have characterized a group of genes that are repressed by histone acetylation. These histone hypoacetylation-activated genes (HHAAG) are normally repressed during exponential growth, when the cellular level of acetyl-CoA is high and global histone acetylation is also high. The HHAAG are induced during diauxic shift, when the levels of acetyl-CoA and global histone acetylation decrease. The histone hypoacetylation-induced activation of HHAAG is independent of Msn2/Msn4. The repression of HSP12, one of the HHAAG, is associated with well-defined nucleosomal structure in the promoter region, while histone hypoacetylation-induced activation correlates with delocalization of positioned nucleosomes or with reduced nucleosome occupancy. Correspondingly, unlike the majority of yeast genes, HHAAG are transcriptionally upregulated when expression of histone genes is reduced. Taken together, these results suggest a model in which histone acetylation is required for proper positioning of promoter nucleosomes and repression of HHAAG.

Regulation of the histone deacetylase Hst3 by cyclin-dependent kinases and the ubiquitin ligase SCFCdc4

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, histone H3 lysine 56 acetylation (H3K56ac) is a modification of new H3 molecules deposited throughout the genome during S-phase. H3K56ac is removed by the sirtuins Hst3 and Hst4 at later stages of the cell cycle. Previous studies indicated that regulated degradation of Hst3 plays an important role in the genome-wide waves of H3K56 acetylation and deacetylation that occur during each cell cycle. However, little is known regarding the mechanism of cell cycle-regulated Hst3 degradation. Here, we demonstrate that Hst3 instability in vivo is dependent upon the ubiquitin ligase SCF(Cdc4) and that Hst3 is phosphorylated at two Cdk1 sites, threonine 380 and threonine 384. This creates a diphosphorylated degron that is necessary for Hst3 polyubiquitylation by SCF(Cdc4). Mutation of the Hst3 diphospho-degron does not completely stabilize Hst3 in vivo, but it nonetheless results in a significant fitness defect that is particularly severe in mutant cells treated with the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate. Unexpectedly, we show that Hst3 can be degraded between G2 and anaphase, a window of the cell cycle where Hst3 normally mediates genome-wide deacetylation of H3K56. Our results suggest an intricate coordination between Hst3 synthesis, genome-wide H3K56 deacetylation by Hst3, and cell cycle-regulated degradation of Hst3 by cyclin-dependent kinases and SCF(Cdc4).

CHD chromatin remodelling enzymes and the DNA damage response

The protein and DNA complex known as chromatin is a dynamic structure, adapting to alter the spatial arrangement of genetic information within the nucleus to meet the ever changing demands of life. Following decades of research, a dizzying array of regulatory factors is now known to control the architecture of chromatin at nearly every level. Amongst these, ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling enzymes play a key role, required for the establishment, maintenance and re-organization of chromatin through their ability to adjust the contact points between DNA and histones, the spacing between individual nucleosomes and the over-arching chromatin superstructure. Utilizing energy from ATP hydrolysis, these enzymes serve as the gatekeepers of genomic access and are essential for transcriptional regulation, DNA replication and cell division. In recent years, a vital role in DNA Double Strand Break (DSB) repair has emerged, particularly within complex chromatin environments such as heterochromatin, or regions undergoing energetic transactions such as transcription or DNA replication. Here, we will provide an overview of what is understood about ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling enzymes in the context of the DNA damage response. We will first touch upon all four major chromatin remodelling enzyme families and then focus chiefly on the nine members of the Chromodomain, Helicase, DNA-binding (CHD) family, particularly CHD3, CHD4, CHD5 and CHD6. These four proteins have established and emerging roles in DNA repair, the oxidative stress response, the maintenance of genomic stability and/or cancer prevention.