UV Irradiation induces an activity which stimulates Simian virus 40 rescue upon cell fusion

Binding of a sequence-specific single-stranded DNA-binding factor to the simian virus 40 core origin inverted repeat domain is cell cycle regulated

The inverted repeat domain (IR domain) within the simian virus 40 origin of replication is the site of initial DNA melting prior to the onset of DNA synthesis. The domain had previously been shown to be bound by a cellular factor in response to DNA damage. We demonstrate that two distinct cellular components bind opposite strands of the IR domain. Replication protein A (RPA), previously identified as a single-stranded DNA binding protein required for origin-specific DNA replication in vitro, is shown to have a preference for the pyrimidine-rich strand. A newly described component, IR factor B (IRF-B), specifically recognizes the opposite strand. IRF-B binding activity in nuclear extract varies significantly with cell proliferation and the cell cycle, so that binding of IRF-B to the IR domain is negatively correlated with the onset of DNA synthesis. Loss of IRF-B binding from the nucleus also occurs in response to cellular DNA damage. UV cross-linking indicates that the core binding component of IRF-B is a protein of ca. 34 kDa. We propose that RPA and IRF-B bind opposite strands of the IR domain and together may function in the regulation of origin activation.

Binding of a sequence-specific single-stranded DNA-binding factor to the simian virus 40 core origin inverted repeat domain is cell cycle regulated

The inverted repeat domain (IR domain) within the simian virus 40 origin of replication is the site of initial DNA melting prior to the onset of DNA synthesis. The domain had previously been shown to be bound by a cellular factor in response to DNA damage. We demonstrate that two distinct cellular components bind opposite strands of the IR domain. Replication protein A (RPA), previously identified as a single-stranded DNA binding protein required for origin-specific DNA replication in vitro, is shown to have a preference for the pyrimidine-rich strand. A newly described component, IR factor B (IRF-B), specifically recognizes the opposite strand. IRF-B binding activity in nuclear extract varies significantly with cell proliferation and the cell cycle, so that binding of IRF-B to the IR domain is negatively correlated with the onset of DNA synthesis. Loss of IRF-B binding from the nucleus also occurs in response to cellular DNA damage. UV cross-linking indicates that the core binding component of IRF-B is a protein of ca. 34 kDa. We propose that RPA and IRF-B bind opposite strands of the IR domain and together may function in the regulation of origin activation.

UV-induced early-domain binding factor as the limiting component of simian virus 40 DNA amplification in rodent cells

UV radiation and other carcinogenic agents induce an increase in DNA-binding activity to the early domain of the simian virus 40 (SV40) minimal origin in both SV40-permissive and SV40-nonpermissive cells. The increase is due to posttranslational modification of a preexisting protein, since it occurs in the presence of cycloheximide or anisomycin. Binding of this factor is an absolute requirement for the UV-induced SV40 DNA amplification in Co631 cells in vivo. A synthetic double-stranded oligonucleotide covering the early domain sequence totally blocked the UV-induced amplification in competition experiments. Point mutants of the sequence and unrelated oligonucleotides which could not bind the factor also did not block SV40 amplification. Inhibitors of protein synthesis caused an immediate increase of both early-domain factor activity (perhaps by prolonging mRNA half-life for the factor or for a modifying enzyme) and DNA amplification. The effects of UV and cycloheximide on SV40 amplification were superaddition.

Carcinogen-induced DNA amplification in vitro: overreplication of the simian virus 40 origin region in extracts from carcinogen-treated CO60 cells

An in vitro system to study carcinogen-induced amplification in simian virus 40 (SV40)-transformed Chinese hamster (CO60) cells is described. SV40 amplification in this system resembled in many aspects the viral overreplication observed in drug-treated CO60 cells. Cytosolic extracts from N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine-treated cells supported de novo DNA synthesis in the presence of excess exogenous T antigen and the SV40-containing plasmid pSVK1. The pattern of viral replication in these extracts was unique, since only the 2.4-kilobase-pair region spanning the origin was overreplicated, whereas distal sequences were not replicated significantly. Extracts from control cells supported only marginal levels of replication. In HeLa extracts, complete SV40 DNA molecules were replicated efficiently. The overreplication of the origin region in CO60 cell extracts was bidirectional and symmetrical. A fraction of the newly synthesized DNA molecules underwent a second round of replication, yielding MboI-sensitive fragments representing the 2.4-kilobase-pair region around the origin. The mechanisms controlling the amplification of the viral origin region, the nature of the cellular factors induced in the carcinogen-treated cells, and their putative association with general drug-induced SOS-like responses are discussed.

Inducible cellular responses to ultraviolet light irradiation and other mediators of DNA damage in mammalian cells

Both naturally occurring and carcinogen-induced tumors display not only point mutations in cellular oncogenes but also more complex changes in cellular oncogenes and other cellular genes. For this and other reasons, it seems likely that DNA damage in mammalian cells can induce alterations in gene expression that may have both short and long term consequences in the target cell. The purpose of this review is to summarize current available information on inducible responses to UV-irradiation and other mediators of DNA damage in mammalian cells, and to provide some working hypotheses. We have divided these responses into three time frames, immediate (0-12 hours), early (12-48) and late (beyond 48 hours). Immediate responses include the action of DNA repair enzymes, some of which are induced as a consequence of DNA damage, and transient inhibition of DNA synthesis. Within the past few years considerable evidence has accumulated that during this immediate period there is increased expression of certain cellular oncogenes, proteases and proteins whose functions remain to be identified. It is of interest that the expression of some of these genes is also induced by certain growth factors, tumor promoters and heat shock. Alterations in gene expression during the subsequent "early" period (12-48 hrs.) have not been studied in detail, but it is during this period that one can detect increased replication of several types of viruses in cells that harbor these viruses. We have examined in detail the induction of asynchronous polyoma DNA replication (APR) in a rat fibroblast cell line carrying integrated copies of this DNA. We have obtained evidence that UV-irradiation of these cells leads to the synthesis of a 40 kd protein, within the first 1-24 hrs after irradiation, that binds to a specific sequence TGACAACA in the regulatory region of polyoma DNA. We suggest that this protein acts together with other proteins to induce APR and that this serves as a useful model for understanding the mechanisms responsible for amplification of cellular genes, a phenomenon often seen in malignant tumors. Finally, we discuss how the events occurring during the immediate and early periods following DNA damage might lead to late effects in the target cell that are stable and contribute to the genotype and phenotype of some of the progeny of these cells that are destined to become tumor cells.

Carcinogen-induced DNA amplification in vitro: overreplication of the simian virus 40 origin region in extracts from carcinogen-treated CO60 cells

An in vitro system to study carcinogen-induced amplification in simian virus 40 (SV40)-transformed Chinese hamster (CO60) cells is described. SV40 amplification in this system resembled in many aspects the viral overreplication observed in drug-treated CO60 cells. Cytosolic extracts from N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine-treated cells supported de novo DNA synthesis in the presence of excess exogenous T antigen and the SV40-containing plasmid pSVK1. The pattern of viral replication in these extracts was unique, since only the 2.4-kilobase-pair region spanning the origin was overreplicated, whereas distal sequences were not replicated significantly. Extracts from control cells supported only marginal levels of replication. In HeLa extracts, complete SV40 DNA molecules were replicated efficiently. The overreplication of the origin region in CO60 cell extracts was bidirectional and symmetrical. A fraction of the newly synthesized DNA molecules underwent a second round of replication, yielding MboI-sensitive fragments representing the 2.4-kilobase-pair region around the origin. The mechanisms controlling the amplification of the viral origin region, the nature of the cellular factors induced in the carcinogen-treated cells, and their putative association with general drug-induced SOS-like responses are discussed.

UV-induced early-domain binding factor as the limiting component of simian virus 40 DNA amplification in rodent cells

UV radiation and other carcinogenic agents induce an increase in DNA-binding activity to the early domain of the simian virus 40 (SV40) minimal origin in both SV40-permissive and SV40-nonpermissive cells. The increase is due to posttranslational modification of a preexisting protein, since it occurs in the presence of cycloheximide or anisomycin. Binding of this factor is an absolute requirement for the UV-induced SV40 DNA amplification in Co631 cells in vivo. A synthetic double-stranded oligonucleotide covering the early domain sequence totally blocked the UV-induced amplification in competition experiments. Point mutants of the sequence and unrelated oligonucleotides which could not bind the factor also did not block SV40 amplification. Inhibitors of protein synthesis caused an immediate increase of both early-domain factor activity (perhaps by prolonging mRNA half-life for the factor or for a modifying enzyme) and DNA amplification. The effects of UV and cycloheximide on SV40 amplification were superaddition.

Carcinogen-induced trans activation of gene expression

We report a new mechanism of carcinogen action by which the expression of several genes was concomitantly enhanced. This mechanism involved the altered activity of cellular factors which modulate the expression of genes under their control. The increased expression was regulated at least in part on the transcriptional level and did not require amplification of the overexpressed genes. This phenomenon was transient; it was apparent as early as 24 h after carcinogen treatment and declined a few days later.

Identification of a UV-induced trans-acting protein that stimulates polyomavirus DNA replication

Previous studies provided indirect evidence that the ability of a variety of DNA-damaging agents to induce asynchronous polyomavirus DNA replication in the H3 rat fibroblast cell line is mediated by a trans-acting factor. Using an erythrocyte insertion technique to introduce protein fractions from UV-irradiated cells into unirradiated H3 cells, we have now obtained evidence that this factor is a 60-kilodalton protein. These findings provide evidence that DNA damage in mammalian cells induces a factor that can alter the replication of a viral DNA.

Carcinogen-induced trans activation of gene expression

We report a new mechanism of carcinogen action by which the expression of several genes was concomitantly enhanced. This mechanism involved the altered activity of cellular factors which modulate the expression of genes under their control. The increased expression was regulated at least in part on the transcriptional level and did not require amplification of the overexpressed genes. This phenomenon was transient; it was apparent as early as 24 h after carcinogen treatment and declined a few days later.

Carcinogen-mediated methotrexate resistance and dihydrofolate reductase amplification in Chinese hamster cells

We have investigated different parameters characterizing carcinogen-mediated enhancement of methotrexate resistance in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and in simian virus 40-transformed Chinese hamster embryo (C060) cells. We show that this enhancement reflects dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) gene amplification. The carcinogens used in this work are alkylating agents and UV irradiation. Both types of carcinogens induce a transient enhancement of methotrexate resistance which increases gradually from the time of treatment to 72 to 96 h later and decreases thereafter. Increasing doses of carcinogens decrease cell survival and increase the enhancement of methotrexate resistance. Enhancement was observed when cells were treated at different stages in the cell cycle, and it was maximal when cells were treated during the early S phase. These studies of carcinogen-mediated dhfr gene amplification coupled with our earlier studies on viral DNA amplification in simian virus 40-transformed cells demonstrate that the same parameters characterize the amplification of both genes. Possible cellular mechanisms responsible for the carcinogen-mediated gene amplification phenomenon are discussed.

Carcinogen-mediated methotrexate resistance and dihydrofolate reductase amplification in Chinese hamster cells

We have investigated different parameters characterizing carcinogen-mediated enhancement of methotrexate resistance in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and in simian virus 40-transformed Chinese hamster embryo (C060) cells. We show that this enhancement reflects dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) gene amplification. The carcinogens used in this work are alkylating agents and UV irradiation. Both types of carcinogens induce a transient enhancement of methotrexate resistance which increases gradually from the time of treatment to 72 to 96 h later and decreases thereafter. Increasing doses of carcinogens decrease cell survival and increase the enhancement of methotrexate resistance. Enhancement was observed when cells were treated at different stages in the cell cycle, and it was maximal when cells were treated during the early S phase. These studies of carcinogen-mediated dhfr gene amplification coupled with our earlier studies on viral DNA amplification in simian virus 40-transformed cells demonstrate that the same parameters characterize the amplification of both genes. Possible cellular mechanisms responsible for the carcinogen-mediated gene amplification phenomenon are discussed.