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Dakalbab S, Hamdy R, Holigová P, Abuzaid EJ, Abu-Qiyas A, Lashine Y, Mohammad MG, Soliman SSM. Uniqueness of Candida auris cell wall in morphogenesis, virulence, resistance, and immune evasion. Microbiol Res 2024; 286:127797. [PMID: 38851008 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2024.127797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Candida auris has drawn global attention due to its alarming multidrug resistance and the emergence of pan resistant strains. C. auris poses a significant risk in nosocomial candidemia especially among immunocompromised patients. C. auris showed unique virulence characteristics associated with cell wall including cell polymorphism, adaptation, endurance on inanimate surfaces, tolerance to external conditions, and immune evasion. Notably, it possesses a distinctive cell wall composition, with an outer mannan layer shielding the inner 1,3-β glucan from immune recognition, thereby enabling immune evasion and drug resistance. This review aimed to comprehend the association between unique characteristics of C. auris's cell wall and virulence, resistance mechanisms, and immune evasion. This is particularly relevant since the fungal cell wall has no human homology, providing a potential therapeutic target. Understanding the complex interactions between the cell wall and the host immune system is essential for devising effective treatment strategies, such as the use of repurposed medications, novel therapeutic agents, and immunotherapy like monoclonal antibodies. This therapeutic targeting strategy of C. auris holds promise for effective eradication of this resilient pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salam Dakalbab
- Research Institute for Medical and Health sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates; College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Rania Hamdy
- Research Institute for Science and Engineering (RISE), University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, P.O. Box 44519, Egypt
| | | | - Eman J Abuzaid
- Research Institute for Medical and Health sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ameera Abu-Qiyas
- Research Institute for Medical and Health sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Yasmina Lashine
- Research Institute for Medical and Health sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, P.O. Box 44519, Egypt
| | - Mohammad G Mohammad
- Research Institute for Medical and Health sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sameh S M Soliman
- Research Institute for Medical and Health sciences, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
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De Gaetano S, Midiri A, Mancuso G, Avola MG, Biondo C. Candida auris Outbreaks: Current Status and Future Perspectives. Microorganisms 2024; 12:927. [PMID: 38792757 PMCID: PMC11123812 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12050927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Candida auris has been identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a critical priority pathogen on its latest list of fungi. C. auris infections are reported in the bloodstream and less commonly in the cerebrospinal fluid and abdomen, with mortality rates that range between 30% and 72%. However, no large-scale epidemiology studies have been reported until now. The diagnosis of C. auris infections can be challenging, particularly when employing conventional techniques. This can impede the early detection of outbreaks and the implementation of appropriate control measures. The yeast can easily spread between patients and in healthcare settings through contaminated environments or equipment, where it can survive for extended periods. Therefore, it would be desirable to screen patients for C. auris colonisation. This would allow facilities to identify patients with the disease and take appropriate prevention and control measures. It is frequently unsusceptible to drugs, with varying patterns of resistance observed among clades and geographical regions. This review provides updates on C. auris, including epidemiology, clinical characteristics, genomic analysis, evolution, colonisation, infection, identification, resistance profiles, therapeutic options, prevention, and control.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Carmelo Biondo
- Mycology Laboratory, Department of Human Pathology, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy; (S.D.G.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (M.G.A.)
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Narayanan A, Selvakumar P, Siddharthan R, Sanyal K. Identification of C. auris clade 5 isolates using claID. Med Mycol 2024; 62:myae018. [PMID: 38414264 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myae018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Candida auris poses threats to the global medical community due to its multidrug resistance, ability to cause nosocomial outbreaks and resistance to common sterilization agents. Different variants that emerged at different geographical zones were classified as clades. Clade-typing becomes necessary to track its spread, possible emergence of new clades, and to predict the properties that exhibit a clade bias. We previously reported a colony-Polymerase Chain Reaction-based, clade-identification method employing whole genome alignments and identification of clade-specific sequences of four major geographical clades. Here, we expand the panel by identifying clade 5 which was later isolated in Iran, using specific primers designed through in silico analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aswathy Narayanan
- Molecular Mycology Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore,560064, India
| | - Pavitra Selvakumar
- Computational Biology, The Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai, 600113, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400094, India
| | - Rahul Siddharthan
- Computational Biology, The Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai, 600113, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400094, India
| | - Kaustuv Sanyal
- Molecular Mycology Laboratory, Molecular Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore,560064, India
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Nysten J, Sofras D, Van Dijck P. One species, many faces: The underappreciated importance of strain diversity. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011931. [PMID: 38271302 PMCID: PMC10810500 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Nysten
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Institute of Botany and Microbiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dimitrios Sofras
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Institute of Botany and Microbiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrick Van Dijck
- Laboratory of Molecular Cell Biology, Department of Biology, Institute of Botany and Microbiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Alshahrani FS, Elgujja AA, Alsubaie S, Ezreqat SA, Albarraq AM, Barry M, Binkhamis K, Alabdan L. Description of Candida auris Occurrence in a Tertiary Health Institution in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Healthcare (Basel) 2023; 11:3150. [PMID: 38132040 PMCID: PMC10743032 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare11243150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Candida auris is an emerging multidrug-resistant fungal pathogen that represents a current serious threat to healthcare settings. OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine the prevalence of C. auris in a Riyadh hospital since its initial detection in late 2019. METHODS Using an adapted risk assessment tool, we reviewed the charts and medical files of all suspected and confirmed cases of C. auris infections reported at King Khalid University Hospital, Riyadh, between November 2019 and December 2022. Anonymized data were retrieved in a pre-established datasheet and analyzed to determine the epidemiological characteristics of C. auris infections in our facility. We analyzed prevalence by age, gender, risk factors, and according to sampling source. RESULTS Of the 53 confirmed C. auris-positive cases during the study period, 33 (62%) were males. Their ages ranged between 15 and 98, with most positive cases occurring in those aged 50 and above. Only one of the confirmed cases was hospital-acquired. All patients had at least one risk factor, and urine samples yielded the greatest number of positive cases, while admission to healthcare facilities constituted the highest risk in our study. CONCLUSION Establishing a local prevalence pattern could serve as a baseline/benchmark to compare with regional and international benchmarks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatimah S. Alshahrani
- College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia; (F.S.A.); (M.B.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, King Saud University Medical City, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
- IPAC Department, King Saud University Medical City, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Abba Amsami Elgujja
- IPAC Department, King Saud University Medical City, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Sara Alsubaie
- Pediatric Infectious Diseases Fellowship Program, College of Medicine, Internal Medicine (Pediatric Infectious Diseases) King Saud University Medical City, King Saud University and Consultant, Riyadh 11461, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Salah Ahmed Ezreqat
- IPAC Department, King Saud University Medical City, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Ahmed M. Albarraq
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia; (A.M.A.); (K.B.)
| | - Mazin Barry
- College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia; (F.S.A.); (M.B.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
| | - Khalifa Binkhamis
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia; (A.M.A.); (K.B.)
| | - Lulwa Alabdan
- College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh 11362, Saudi Arabia; (F.S.A.); (M.B.)
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, King Saud University Medical City, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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Stanciu AM, Florea D, Surleac M, Paraschiv S, Oțelea D, Tălăpan D, Popescu GA. First report of Candida auris in Romania: clinical and molecular aspects. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2023; 12:91. [PMID: 37674189 PMCID: PMC10483769 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-023-01297-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The emerging opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida auris raises significant concerns for public health due to its outbreak potential, the associated high mortality, increased resistance to antifungals, challenging identification to species level, since commonly used diagnostic methods can confuse this fungus with other Candida spp. The present outbreak report describes probably some of the first Candida auris cases in Romania, providing clinical and epidemiological data, and also whole genome sequencing data. The cases were identified in three hospitals in Bucharest during the first eight months of 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Mihaela Stanciu
- "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Dionisie Lupu Street no 37, Bucharest, 050474, Romania
- "Prof. Dr. Matei Bals" National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Calistrat Grozovici Street no 1, Bucharest, 021105, Romania
| | - Dragoș Florea
- "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Dionisie Lupu Street no 37, Bucharest, 050474, Romania.
- "Prof. Dr. Matei Bals" National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Calistrat Grozovici Street no 1, Bucharest, 021105, Romania.
| | - Marius Surleac
- "Prof. Dr. Matei Bals" National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Calistrat Grozovici Street no 1, Bucharest, 021105, Romania
| | - Simona Paraschiv
- "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Dionisie Lupu Street no 37, Bucharest, 050474, Romania
- "Prof. Dr. Matei Bals" National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Calistrat Grozovici Street no 1, Bucharest, 021105, Romania
| | - Dan Oțelea
- "Prof. Dr. Matei Bals" National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Calistrat Grozovici Street no 1, Bucharest, 021105, Romania
| | - Daniela Tălăpan
- "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Dionisie Lupu Street no 37, Bucharest, 050474, Romania
- "Prof. Dr. Matei Bals" National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Calistrat Grozovici Street no 1, Bucharest, 021105, Romania
| | - Gabriel Adrian Popescu
- "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Dionisie Lupu Street no 37, Bucharest, 050474, Romania
- "Prof. Dr. Matei Bals" National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Calistrat Grozovici Street no 1, Bucharest, 021105, Romania
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Sathi FA, Aung MS, Paul SK, Nasreen SA, Haque N, Roy S, Ahmed S, Alam MM, Khan S, Rabbany MA, Biswas JP, Kobayashi N. Clonal Diversity of Candida auris, Candida blankii, and Kodamaea ohmeri Isolated from Septicemia and Otomycosis in Bangladesh as Determined by Multilocus Sequence Typing. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:658. [PMID: 37367594 DOI: 10.3390/jof9060658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Candida auris, Candida blankii, and Kodamaea ohmeri have been regarded as emerging fungal pathogens that can cause infections with high mortality. For genotyping of C. auris, a multilocus sequence typing (MLST) scheme based on four locus sequences has been reported, while there is no typing scheme for C. blankii and K. ohmeri. In the present study, the existing MLST scheme of C. auris was modified by adding more locus types deduced from sequence data available in the GenBank database. Furthermore, MLST schemes of C. blankii and K. ohmeri were developed using the four cognate loci (ITS, RPB1, RPB2, D1/D2) and similar sequence regions to those of C. auris. These MLST schemes were applied to identify the ST (sequence type) of clinical isolates of C. auris (n = 7), C. blankii (n = 9), and K. ohmeri (n = 6), derived from septicemia or otomycosis in Bangladesh in 2021. All the C. auris isolates were classified into a single ST (ST5) and clade I, having a Y132F substitution in ERG11p, which is associated with azole resistance. Similarly, all the C. blankii isolates belonged to a single type (ST1). In contrast, six K. ohmeri isolates were assigned to five types (ST1-ST5), suggesting its higher genetic diversity. These findings revealed the availability of MLST schemes for these three fungal species for understanding their clonal diversity among clinical isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fardousi Akter Sathi
- Department of Microbiology, Mymensingh Medical College, Mymensingh 2200, Bangladesh
| | - Meiji Soe Aung
- Department of Hygiene, School of Medicine, Sapporo Medical University, Sapporo 060-8556, Japan
| | | | | | - Nazia Haque
- Department of Microbiology, Mymensingh Medical College, Mymensingh 2200, Bangladesh
| | - Sangjukta Roy
- Department of Microbiology, Mymensingh Medical College, Mymensingh 2200, Bangladesh
| | - Salma Ahmed
- Mugda Medical College, Dhaka 1214, Bangladesh
| | | | - Shahed Khan
- Department of Oral Microbiology, Mymensingh Medical College Hospital, Mymensingh 2200, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Arif Rabbany
- Department of Neonatology, Mymensingh Medical College Hospital, Mymensingh 2200, Bangladesh
| | - Joy Prokas Biswas
- Department of Pathology, Netrokona Medical College, Netrokona 2400, Bangladesh
| | - Nobumichi Kobayashi
- Department of Hygiene, School of Medicine, Sapporo Medical University, Sapporo 060-8556, Japan
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Ito Y, Inoue N, Kaneko N, Otsuka M, Yamasaki S, Yoshikawa M. A case of fungal otitis externa caused by coinfection of Candida auris and Aspergillus flavus. J Infect Chemother 2023:S1341-321X(23)00105-8. [PMID: 37094768 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2023.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
Abstract
Fungal otitis externa is a disease encountered occasionally and is caused mostly by Aspergillus or Candida spp. We report a woman with fungal otitis externa who also had typical findings in the external auditory canal. The results of a culture showed coinfection with Candida auris and Aspergillus flavus. Identification of both species was performed by sequencing analysis of the 26S rDNA (D1/D2) region. Additionally, the newly developed CHROMagar™ Candida Plus medium was a useful tool for the easy and rapid identification of C. auris. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of fungal otitis externa caused by coinfection with C. auris and A. flavus. This case showed good susceptibility to many antifungal drugs and fortunately had a good clinical course with 1% bifonazole cream, which was applied to the fungal coinfection. Notably, C. auris is a multidrug-resistant yeast-like fungus. The increase in drug-resistant fungi and co-infections caused by these pathogens can make the diagnosis and treatment more complex and difficult. To solve these problems, performing rapid and accurate identification and susceptibility testing using chromogenic medium and molecular biological analysis would be useful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukitaka Ito
- Division of Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Toho University Ohashi Medical Center, 2-22-36 Ohashi, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8515, Japan.
| | - Natsuki Inoue
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Toho University Ohashi Medical Center, 2-22-36 Ohashi, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8515, Japan.
| | - Naomi Kaneko
- Division of Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Toho University Ohashi Medical Center, 2-22-36 Ohashi, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8515, Japan.
| | - Masanobu Otsuka
- Division of Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Toho University Ohashi Medical Center, 2-22-36 Ohashi, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8515, Japan.
| | - Shintaro Yamasaki
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Toho University Ohashi Medical Center, 2-22-36 Ohashi, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8515, Japan.
| | - Mamoru Yoshikawa
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Toho University Ohashi Medical Center, 2-22-36 Ohashi, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 153-8515, Japan.
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Ahmad S, Asadzadeh M. Strategies to Prevent Transmission of Candida auris in Healthcare Settings. CURRENT FUNGAL INFECTION REPORTS 2023; 17:36-48. [PMID: 36718372 PMCID: PMC9878498 DOI: 10.1007/s12281-023-00451-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Purpose of Review Candida auris, a recently recognized yeast pathogen, has become a major public health threat due to the problems associated with its accurate identification, intrinsic and acquired resistance to antifungal drugs, and its potential to easily contaminate the environment causing clonal outbreaks in healthcare facilities. These outbreaks are associated with high mortality rates particularly among older patients with multiple comorbidities under intensive care settings. The purpose of this review is to highlight strategies that are being adapted to prevent transmission of C. auris in healthcare settings. Recent Findings Colonized patients shed C. auris into their environment which contaminates surrounding equipment. It resists elimination even by robust decontamination procedures and is easily transmitted to new patients during close contact resulting in outbreaks. Efforts are being made to rapidly identify C. auris-infected/C. auris-colonized patients, to determine its susceptibility to antifungals, and to perform effective cleaning and decontamination of the environment and isolation of colonized patients to prevent further transmission. Summary Rapid and accurate identification of hospitalized patients infected/colonized with C. auris, rapid detection of its susceptibility patterns, and appropriate use of infection control measures can help to contain the spread of this highly pathogenic yeast in healthcare settings and prevent/control outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suhail Ahmad
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Kuwait University, PO Box: 24923, 13110 Safat, Kuwait
| | - Mohammad Asadzadeh
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Microbiology, Kuwait University, PO Box: 24923, 13110 Safat, Kuwait
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Raman Metabolomics of Candida auris Clades: Profiling and Barcode Identification. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911736. [PMID: 36233043 PMCID: PMC9569935 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study targets on-site/real-time taxonomic identification and metabolic profiling of seven different Candida auris clades/subclades by means of Raman spectroscopy and imaging. Representative Raman spectra from different Candida auris samples were systematically deconvoluted by means of a customized machine-learning algorithm linked to a Raman database in order to decode structural differences at the molecular scale. Raman analyses of metabolites revealed clear differences in cell walls and membrane structure among clades/subclades. Such differences are key in maintaining the integrity and physical strength of the cell walls in the dynamic response to external stress and drugs. It was found that Candida cells use the glucan structure of the extracellular matrix, the degree of α-chitin crystallinity, and the concentration of hydrogen bonds between its antiparallel chains to tailor cell walls’ flexibility. Besides being an effective ploy in survivorship by providing stiff shields in the α–1,3–glucan polymorph, the α–1,3–glycosidic linkages are also water-insoluble, thus forming a rigid and hydrophobic scaffold surrounded by a matrix of pliable and hydrated β–glucans. Raman analysis revealed a variety of strategies by different clades to balance stiffness, hydrophobicity, and impermeability in their cell walls. The selected strategies lead to differences in resistance toward specific environmental stresses of cationic/osmotic, oxidative, and nitrosative origins. A statistical validation based on principal component analysis was found only partially capable of distinguishing among Raman spectra of clades and subclades. Raman barcoding based on an algorithm converting spectrally deconvoluted Raman sub-bands into barcodes allowed for circumventing any speciation deficiency. Empowered by barcoding bioinformatics, Raman analyses, which are fast and require no sample preparation, allow on-site speciation and real-time selection of appropriate treatments.
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