Repeated infusions of infliximab, a chimeric anti-TNFalpha monoclonal antibody, in patients with active spondyloarthropathy: one year follow up

The use of anti-TNF-alpha therapies for patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Where are we now?

INTRODUCTION

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune rheumatic disease characterized by multiple pathologies in which sustained inflammatory activity leads to progressive tissue destruction and organ damage. One of the main proinflammatory cytokines playing a key role in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or SLE, is tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha.

AREAS COVERED

The introduction of TNF-alpha inhibitors revolutionized the treatment of RA and other conditions including psoriatic arthritis and ankylosing spodylitis. We review here the efficacy and safety of TNF-alpha blockers in SLE focussing on why it has not been more widely used since TNF-alpha was reported to be increased in SLE patients and to correlate with disease activity.

EXPERT OPINION

We summarize the reported SLE cases that have received TNF-alpha blockers and the main results to date. We reflect on whether there is a case to reconsider the use of TNF-alpha blockade in SLE.

Modern anti-cytokine therapy of autoimmune diseases

The emergence of genetically engineered biological agents opened new prospects in the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Cytokines responsible for regulation of a wide range of processes during development of the normal immune response are among the most successful therapeutic targets. Studies carried out in recent decades and accompanied by rapid development of biotechnology have promoted establishing in detail the role and place of cytokines in autoimmune and inflammatory pathologies. Nevertheless, mechanisms that underlie anti-cytokine therapy are still not fully understood. This review examines the role of such cytokines as TNF, IL-1, and IL-6 in the development of inflammatory processes and the action mechanisms of their inhibitors.

Impact on total population health and societal cost, and the implication on the actual cost-effectiveness of including tumour necrosis factor-α antagonists in management of ankylosing spondylitis: a dynamic population modelling study

Background

Sequential treatment of ankylosing spondylitis (AS) that includes tumour necrosis factor-α antagonists (anti-TNF agents) has been applied in most of the Western countries. Existing cost-effectiveness (CE) models almost exclusively presented the incremental CE of anti-TNF agents using a closed cohort while budget impact studies are mainly lacking. Notwithstanding, information on impact on total population health and societal budget as well as on actual incremental CE for a given decision time span are important for decision makers. This study aimed at quantifying, for different decision time spans starting from January 1, 2014 in the Dutch society, (1) impact of sequential drug treatment strategies without and with inclusion of anti-TNF agents (Strategies 1 and 2, respectively) on total population health and societal cost, and (2) the actual incremental CE of Strategy 2 compared to Strategy 1.

Methods

Dynamic population modelling was used to capture total population health and cost, and the actual incremental CE. Distinguishing the prevalent AS population on January 1, 2014 and the incident AS cohorts in the subsequent 20 years, the model tracked individually an actual number of AS patients until death or end of the simulation time. During the simulation, data on patient characteristics, history of drug use, costs and health at discrete time points were generated. In Strategy 1, five nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were available but anti-TNF agents withdrawn. In Strategy 2, five NSAIDs and two anti-TNF agents continued to be available.

Results

The predicted size of the prevalent AS population in the Dutch society varied within the range of 67,145–69,957 with 44–46 % of the patients receiving anti-TNF agents over the period 2014–2034. The use of anti-TNF agents resulted in an increase in the annual drug costs (168.54–205.28 million Euros), but at the same time caused a decrease in the annual productivity costs (12.58–31.21 million Euros) and in annual costs of healthcare categories other than drugs (7.23–11.90 million Euros). Incremental cost (Euros) per QALY gained in Strategy 2 compared to Strategy 1 corresponding to decision time spans of 5, 10, 15 and 20 years improved slightly from 75,379 to 67,268, 63,938 and 61,129, respectively. At willingness-to-pay thresholds of 118,656, 112,067, 110,188 and 110,512 Euros, it was 99 % certain that Strategy 2 was cost-effective for decision time spans of 5, 10, 15 and 20, respectively.

Conclusions

Using the dynamic population approach, the present model can project real-time data to inform a healthcare system decision that affects all actual number of AS patients eligible for anti-TNF agents within different decision time spans. The predicted total population costs of different categories in the present study can help plan the organization of the healthcare resources based on the national budget for the disease.

TNF-alpha inhibitors for ankylosing spondylitis

BACKGROUND

TNF (tumor necrosis factor)-alpha inhibitors block a key protein in the inflammatory chain reaction responsible for joint inflammation, pain, and damage in ankylosing spondylitis.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the benefit and harms of adalimumab, etanercept, golimumab, and infliximab (TNF-alpha inhibitors) in people with ankylosing spondylitis.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the following databases to January 26, 2009: MEDLINE (from 1966); EMBASE (from 1980); the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; 2008, Issue 4); ACP Journal Club; CINAHL (from 1982); and ISI Web of Knowledge (from 1900). We ran updated searches in May 2012, October 2013, and in June 2014 for McMaster PLUS. We searched major regulatory agencies for safety warnings and clinicaltrials.gov for registered trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing adalimumab, etanercept, golimumab and infliximab to placebo, other drugs or usual care in patients with ankylosing spondylitis, reported in abstract or full-text.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed search results, risk of bias, and extracted data. We conducted Bayesian mixed treatment comparison (MTC) meta-analyses using WinBUGS software. To investigate a class-effect of harms across biologics, we pooled harms data using Review Manager 5.

MAIN RESULTS

We included twenty-one, short-term (24 weeks or less) RCTs with a total of 3308 participants; 18 contributed data to the MTC analysis: adalimumab (4 studies), etanercept (8 studies), golimumab (2 studies), infliximab (3 studies), and one head-to-head study (etanercept versus infliximab) which was unblinded and considered at a higher risk of bias. The risk of selection and detection bias was low or unclear for most of the studies. The risk of selective outcome reporting was low for most studies as they reported on outcomes recommended by the Assessment of SpondyloArthritis international Society. We found little heterogeneity and no significant inconsistency in the MTC analyses. The majority of the studies were funded by pharmaceutical companies. Most studies permitted concomitant therapy of stable doses of disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, or corticosteroids, but allowances varied across studies.Compared with placebo, there was high quality evidence that patients on an anti-TNF agent were three to four times more likely to achieve an ASAS40 response (assessing spinal pain, function, and inflammation, as measured by the mean of intensity and duration of morning stiffness, and patient global assessment) by six months (adalimumab: risk ratio (RR) 3.53, 95% credible interval (Crl) 2.49 to 4.91; etanercept: RR 3.31, 95% Crl 2.38 to 4.53; golimumab: RR 2.90, 95% Crl 1.90 to 4.23; infliximab: RR 4.07, 95% Crl 2.80 to 5.74, with a 25% to 40% absolute difference between treatment and placebo groups. The number needed to treat (NNT) to achieve an ASAS 40 response ranged from 3 to 5.There was high quality evidence of improvement in physical function on a 0 to 10 scale (adalimumab: mean difference (MD) -1.6, 95% Crl -2.2 to -0.9; etanercept: MD -1.1, 95% CrI -1.6 to -0.6; golimumab: MD -1.5, 95% Crl -2.3 to -0.7; infliximab: MD -2.1, 95% Crl -2.7 to -1.4, with an 11% to 21% absolute difference between treatment and placebo groups. The NNT to achieve the minimally clinically important difference of 0.7 points ranged from 2 to 4.Compared with placebo, there was moderate quality evidence (downgraded for imprecision) that patients on an anti-TNF agent were more likely to achieve an ASAS partial remission by six months (adalimumab: RR 6.28, 95% Crl 3.13 to 12.78; etanercept: RR 4.24, 95% Crl 2.31 to 8.09; golimumab: RR 5.18, 95% Crl 1.90 to 14.79; infliximab: RR 15.41, 95% Crl 5.09 to 47.98 with a 10% to 44% absolute difference between treatment and placebo groups. The NNT to achieve an ASAS partial remission response ranged from 3 to 11.There was low to moderate level evidence of a greater reduction in spinal inflammation as measured by magnetic resonance imaging though the absolute differences were small and the clinical relevance of the difference was unclear: adalimumab (1 trial; -6% (95% confidence interval (CI) -12% to 0.05%); 1 trial: 53.6% mean decrease from baseline versus 9.4% mean increase in the placebo group), golimumab (1 trial; -2.5%, (95% CI -5.6% to -0.7%)), and infliximab (1 trial; -3% (95% CI -4% to -2.4%)).Radiographic progression was measured in one trial (N = 60) of etanercept versus placebo and it found that radiologic changes were similar in both groups (detailed data not provided).There were few events of withdrawals due to adverse events leading to imprecision around the estimates. When all the anti-TNF agents were combined against placebo, there was moderate quality evidence from 16 studies of an increased risk of withdrawals due to adverse events in the anti-TNF group (Peto odds ratio (OR) 2.44, 95% CI 1.26 to 4.72; total events: 38/1637 in biologic group; 7/986 in placebo) though the absolute increase in harm was small (1%; 95% CI 0% to 2%).Due to low event rates, evidence of the effect of individual TNF-inhibitors against placebo or for all four biologics pooled together versus placebo on serious adverse events is inconclusive (moderate quality; downgraded for imprecision). For all anti-TNF pooled versus placebo based on 16 studies: Peto OR 1.45, 95% CI 0.85 to 2.48; 51/1530 in biologic group; 18/878 in placebo; absolute difference: 1% (95% CI 0% to 2%).Using indirect comparison methodology, and one head-to-head study of etanercept versus infliximab, wide confidence intervals meant that results were inconclusive for evidence of differences in the major outcomes between different anti-TNF agents. Regulatory agencies have published warnings about rare adverse events of serious infections, including tuberculosis, malignancies and lymphoma.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is moderate to high quality evidence that anti-TNF agents improve clinical symptoms in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis. More participants withdrew due to adverse events when on an anti-TNF agent but we did not find evidence of an increase in serious adverse events, though event rates were low and trials had a short duration. The short-term toxicity profile appears acceptable. Based on indirect comparison methodology, we are uncertain whether there are differences between anti-TNF agents in terms of the key benefit or harm outcomes.

Therapeutic human monoclonal antibodies in inflammatory diseases

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are antibodies of a single antigen specificity produced by identical immune cells, i.e., clones of a common germ cell. They offer unprecedented opportunities to drug development because of their ability to target almost any cell surface or secreted molecule with remarkable efficacy and safety. In this chapter, the application of human mAbs in the treatment of inflammatory diseases is reviewed. We discuss in detail several mAb-based drugs such as anti-tumor necrosis factor (anti-TNF), anti-interleukin-1 (anti-IL-1) receptor, anti-IL-6 receptor, anti-α4 integrin subunit, and anti-CD20 agents, all of which have been documented by clinical trials to be efficacious and have been approved for the therapy of several inflammatory and immune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, spondyloarthropathies, juvenile arthritis, psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and others. These novel drugs can be used either as a monotherapy or in combination with other conventional therapeutic modalities, particularly if the disease under treatment is refractory to therapy using solely conventional techniques. As a large variety of mAb-based agents targeting a plethora of cytokines, chemokines, adhesion and co-stimulatory molecules, receptors, as well as diverse cell types, are presently under investigation, the therapeutic armamentarium of the clinician is expected to greatly broaden in the near future, providing improved patient care for a wide range of devastating diseases of our times.

Management strategies for osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and gouty arthritis

Rheumatic diseases are among the most frequent causes of pain and disability. Effective management of rheumatic diseases including osteoarthritis (OA), ankylosing spondylitis (AS), and gouty arthritis requires an understanding of the underlying disease mechanisms.Symptoms of OA result from both mechanical factors and elements of inflammation. Current management strategies target both of these factors and generally consist of nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic interventions, including use of nonspecific nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and cyclooxygenase-2-specific inhibitors (coxibs), which have analgesic and antiinflammatory properties. Other approaches include intraarticular hyaluronate and the use of alternative therapies under investigation such as acupuncture or glucosamine.Disease mechanisms in AS involve enthesitis, an inflammation at the site of insertion of ligaments, tendons, or joint capsules to bone. Posture and exercise are important nonpharmacologic strategies that may be made easier with the use of NSAIDs or coxibs. Recently developed therapies, including tumor necrosis factor inhibitors, target the underlying disease mechanisms and have demonstrated dramatic symptomatic effects. Disease-modifying effects still need to be established.In gout, hyperuricemia leads to crystal-induced inflammation in some patients. Etoricoxib, one of the newer coxibs, has shown promise in treating acute gout, with efficacy similar to indomethacin, the current standard NSAID often used in these patients. Oral or intraarticular steroids can also be considered. For chronic care uricosurics can be beneficial if renal function is normal and excretion is not excessive, but allopurinol is used most often. Nonpharmacologic modalities, such as rest and cold applications, are useful for acute episodes, and lifestyle modification in the form of diet can also play a role in chronic disease management.

The joint-gut axis in inflammatory bowel diseases

Inflammatory bowel diseases, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, are associated with a variety of extraintestinal manifestations. The most common extraintestinal manifestation, articular involvement, occurs in 16% to 33% of inflammatory bowel disease patients. These arthropathies may increase morbidity, resulting in a worse quality of life compared with inflammatory bowel disease patients without arthropathies. Thus, arthropathies in inflammatory bowel diseases represent a major medical problem in these patients. Arthritis associated with inflammatory bowel diseases is one of the diseases captured under the umbrella of spondyloarthritis. Spondyloarthritis is a group of inflammatory diseases with overlapping features and is linked to Human Leukocyte Antigen-B27. Arthropathy in inflammatory bowel diseases is clinically divided into peripheral and axial involvement. Peripheral arthritis often flares with relapses of bowel disease resulting in a different treatment approach than axial arthritis in which the course is independent of inflammatory bowel disease activity. Definitions, prevalence, pathophysiology and treatment of the arthropathies commonly seen in inflammatory bowel diseases such as peripheral arthritis, dactylitis, enthesitis, arthralgia, sacroiliitis, inflammatory back pain and ankylosing spondylitis are summarized.

A systematic MEDLINE analysis of therapeutic approaches in ankylosing spondylitis

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disorder involving the sacroiliac joints (SIJs), spine and less frequently the peripheral joints. Traditionally, it is well recognised that AS is a challenging disease to manage due to the lack of effective therapeutic options. Current evidence would suggest this has changed and there are now a number of therapies available that provide persistent control of inflammatory symptoms with improvement in daily function. NSAIDs remain the first step in patient treatment. Sulphasalazine may be effective in peripheral arthritis and there are emerging data to support its use in early inflammatory back pain. Studies have shown that pamidronate and steroid injection into SIJ have a symptom-modifying effect in AS. Current data suggest that anti-TNF treatment promises early benefit which is likely to continue in the longer term. Treatment with biologics should be considered sooner rather than later in the management of AS.

Management of ankylosing spondylitis with infliximab

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a systemic inflammatory rheumatic disease responsible for back pain, stiffness and progressive loss of functional capacity with limited therapeutic options. Regular physical exercises together with the use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs are the two recognized treatment options in AS. Infliximab is a chimeric anti-tumor necrosis factor-α monoclonal antibody that has been demonstrated to be highly effective in the treatment of AS, providing clinical amelioration at both axial and peripheral skeleton. Infliximab also improves quality of life, function, biological parameters (acute phase reactants) and inflammatory lesions of the spine as detected by magnetic resonance imaging. It is given at a 5 mg/kg dosage, as an infusion at weeks 0, 2, 6, and every 6 to 8 weeks after. Open-label and placebo-controlled trials have well demonstrated its high level of efficacy, with an improvement of the disease activity of at least 50% in 60%-80% of patients. In a large placebo-controlled trial, Assessment in Ankylosing Spondylitis Response Criteria (ASAS20) responders were observed in 61.2% of patients receiving infliximab compared to 19.2% of patients under placebo. Long-term efficacy is maintained when infliximab is administered every 6-8 weeks. Consensus international guidelines for the initiation and the use of this expensive treatment are available. Some questions remain, including the long-term safety, in particular the risk of lymphoma, and the potential influence of infliximab on radiological progression which is not currently demonstrated. Despite these concerns, infliximab has revolutionized the management of AS and represents a considerable therapeutic advancement in this disabling disease.

[Ankylosing spondylitis in Central and Eastern Europe. Cross-sectional study on treatment modalities, disease activity and quality of life]

OBJECTIVES

To obtain information on the profile of patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS), disease activity, previous and current treatments, and the proportion and profile of patients treated with conventional medications but considered eligible for anti-tumour necrosis factor (TNF) therapy.

METHODS

Participants were rheumatologists from seven Central and Eastern European countries who were considered experts in the treatment of AS and were to include 3-5 patients who had never received anti-TNF therapy. Rheumatologists were asked to decide whether they considered their patients candidates for anti-TNF therapy.

RESULTS

A total of 1506 patients were analysed. Overall, 61% of AS patients who had never received anti-TNF therapy until the time of the survey were considered candidates for anti-TNF therapy based on the clinical judgement of their rheumatologists. This proportion ranged from 40% in Slovakia to 84% in Romania. Candidates had higher levels of disease activity and functional impairment, and they were more likely to report a lower quality of life. Only 38% of candidates fulfilled the Assessment in Ankylosing Spondylitis (ASAS) recommendations with respect to a Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Disease Activity Index (BASDAI) of at least 4 combined with previous use of at least two non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ranging from 18% in Poland to 57% in Hungary.

CONCLUSION

More than half of AS patients currently treated with other medications may be eligible for anti-TNF therapy. Also, rheumatologists regarded disease activity as the determining factor for starting anti-TNF drugs, but their decision did not always fully comply with the ASAS recommendations, confirming the need for continued exchange among the medical community to increase awareness of the ASAS recommendations.

Efficacy and safety of TNF-blocker therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus

BACKGROUND

There is still unmet medical need in the therapy of severe organ manifestations of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Therapeutic agents targeting pro-inflammatory cytokines may be an interesting option.

OBJECTIVE

To review available data on the efficacy and safety of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) blockade in SLE.

METHODS

A review of the literature was conducted.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

Open-label experience suggests that TNF blockade is effective in SLE patients with arthritis, nephritis and skin disease. In particular, nephritis may remain in long-term remission after just four infusions of infliximab administered. Despite the induction of lupus-specific autoantibodies, short-term therapy with infliximab in combination with azathioprine appears feasible and relatively safe. The data call for controlled clinical trials, at least one of which has been initiated.

The role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in systemic lupus erythematosus

Murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have shown apparently contradictory evidence in that either (a) tumor necrosis factor (TNF) expression was low and TNF administration helpful or (b) TNF was high and TNF blockade of therapeutic benefit, depending on the mouse model investigated. In fact, TNF apparently has both effects, checking autoimmunity, at least to some degree, and fostering inflammation. TNF blockade regularly, but transiently, induces or increases autoantibodies to chromatin and to phospholipids. At the same time, open-label data suggest that TNF blockade suppresses inflammatory manifestations of SLE, and long-term benefit was seen in patients with lupus nephritis. A controlled clinical trial is under way.

Undifferentiated spondyloarthritis: a global perspective

This paper reviews the concept and outcome of undifferentiated spondyloarthritis (SpA) as reported in retrospective and prospective studies from different parts of the world. Although the designs and definitions vary across different studies, clearly a significant proportion of patients with undifferentiated SpA will fulfill ankylosing spondylitis within 10 years in association with certain prognostic factors. The paper also examines the concept of axial SpA and its importance as an early indicator of ankylosing spondylitis. Ultimately, the recognition of undifferentiated SpA and axial SpA may lead to early treatment with highly efficacious drugs.

TNFalpha blockade in human diseases: an overview of efficacy and safety

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) antagonists including antibodies and soluble receptors have shown remarkable efficacy in various immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMID). As experience with these agents has matured, there is an emerging need to integrate and critically assess the utility of these agents across disease states and clinical sub-specialties. Their remarkable efficacy in reducing chronic damage in Crohn's disease and rheumatoid arthritis has led many investigators to propose a new, 'top down' paradigm for treating patients initially with aggressive regimens to quickly control disease. Intriguingly, in diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and asthma, anti-TNFalpha agents appear to more profoundly benefit patients with more chronic stages of disease but have a relatively weaker or little effect in early disease. While the spectrum of therapeutic efficacy of TNFalpha antagonists widens to include diseases such as recalcitrant uveitis and vasculitis, these agents have failed or even exacerbated diseases such as heart failure and multiple sclerosis. Increasing use of these agents has also led to recognition of new toxicities as well as to understanding of their excellent long-term tolerability. Disconcertingly, new cases of active tuberculosis still occur in patients treated with all TNFalpha antagonists due to lack of compliance with recommendations to prevent reactivation of latent tuberculosis infection. These safety issues as well as guidelines to prevent treatment-associated complications are reviewed in detail in this article. New data on mechanisms of action and development of newer TNFalpha antagonists are discussed in a subsequent article in the Journal. It is hoped that these two review articles will stimulate a fresh assessment of the priorities for research and clinical innovation to improve and extend therapeutic use and safety of TNFalpha antagonism.

Osteochondral repair in synovial joints

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

One of the major challenges in rheumatology remains the induction of osteochondral repair in synovial joints. Remarkable progress has been made in controlling the inflammatory pathways of chronic synovitis and tissue damage in rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathy. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on the mechanisms involved in osteochondral repair in degenerative joint diseases, as well as in immune mediated inflammatory arthritides, with special emphasis on tumor necrosis factor alpha and IL-1.

RECENT FINDINGS

Homeostasis of articular cartilage and subchondral bone are essential for maintaining the integrity of osteochondral structures within synovial joints. This is achieved by the regulation of a delicate balance between anabolic and catabolic signals. In articular cartilage one cell type, the chondrocyte, is responsible for regulation of homeostasis. In bone, however, two distinct cell types, osteoblasts and osteoclasts, are responsible for anabolic and catabolic pathways, respectively. In inflammatory joint disorders, this tight regulation is profoundly dysregulated, with tumor necrosis factor alpha acting as an important catalyst of a disturbed homeostasis, together with IL-1. Targeting these cytokines may restore the intrinsic repair capacity of osteochondral structures.

SUMMARY

To restore catabolic cytokine balances appears to be a suitable strategy to promote osteochondral repair.

Infliximab in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by inflammation in the spine and sacroiliac joints which causes pain, stiffness and the potential for spinal ankylosis. It is associated with significant functional impairment. It is common and since onset is often in young people, the burden of disease is considerable. Conventional treatment including non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and physiotherapy have proven but limited efficacy in controlling symptoms and preventing progression of spinal manifestations. Infliximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody which binds to and inhibits tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha), is highly effective in controlling disease activity in AS. In AS, infliximab 5 mg/kg body weight is usually given as an infusion at weeks 0, 2 and 6, and then every 6-8 weeks. When infliximab is used in combination with NSAIDs a rapid improvement in disease activity by at least 50% is seen in as many as 50% of AS patients. Infliximab has been shown to have ongoing efficacy for as long as regular infusions continue and is safe in the medium term. Magnetic resonance studies show major reductions in spinal inflammation during treatment with infliximab, however ongoing studies will assess if infliximab has disease modifying effect in AS.

An international study on starting tumour necrosis factor-blocking agents in ankylosing spondylitis

OBJECTIVES

To determine the type and proportion of patients with ankylosing spondylitis who rheumatologists consider to be candidates for treatment with tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-blocking agents, and to what extent this is in agreement with the ASsessment in Ankylosing Spondylitis (ASAS) international working group recommendations on initiation of treatment with anti-TNF agents.

METHODS

Participants were rheumatologists from 10 different countries, who were considered to be experts in treating patients with ankylosing spondylitis and in the use of anti-TNF treatment, but were unaware of the ASAS recommendations (unpublished at the time of study in 2003). The first 10 consecutive patients with ankylosing spondylitis seen by the rheumatologist were evaluated as to whether the patient was a candidate for anti-TNF treatment. Thereafter, a metrologist assessed the patient for disease activity and severity, and collected data on demographics and treatment.

RESULTS

Complete data were available for 1207 of the 1284 patients and were used for analysis. Overall, the rheumatologists indicated that they would initiate TNF-blocking agents in 49.3% of patients, ranging from 37.2% patients in Canada to 78.3% in Australia. These candidates had higher disease activity, higher levels of acute-phase reactants, worse spinal mobility, worse function, more often hip involvement and a higher prevalence of sick leave. Of all patients considered to be candidates, 40% did not fulfil ASAS recommendations with respect to previous use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs; at least two NSAIDs) or Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Disease Activity Index (>or=4). Conversely, 36% of patients who did not fulfil the NSAID or BASDAI recommendations were still considered to be candidates for TNF-blocking treatment.

OBJECTIVE

variables, such as C reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate or magnetic resonance activity, were considered less important than disease activity in the decision on starting TNF-blocking drugs. The only important objective criterion was rapid radiographic progression.

CONCLUSION

Rheumatologists wanted to initiate TNF-blocking drugs in roughly half of the patients with ankylosing spondylitis. However, there was a wide variation across countries and doctors. Rheumatologists considered both disease activity and severity to be determinants of starting TNF blockers, but their decision was often in disagreement with ASAS recommendations.

Treatment of immune-mediated extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease with infliximab

The introduction of infliximab into clinical practice is one of the most significant advances in the care of patients who have IBD. Infliximab has become an important part of the medical armamentarium to treat extraintestinal manifestations that often are refractory to other medications and are a significant cause of morbidity in these patients. Two other TNF inhibitors recently have demonstrated efficacy in CD: certolizumab pegol and adalimumab. The Food and Drug Administration has approved adalimumab for use in RA. One predicts that these agents also may have activity in the extraintestinal manifestation for IBD. To determine whether future biologics are effective in the EIM of IBD, one may need to look no further than the vast clinical trial experience in primary chronic inflammatory diseases of the joints and skin: RA and psoriasis. For example, the Food and DRug Administration recently has approved an anti-B-cell therapy, rituximab, and a T-cell costimulation modulator, abatacept, for use in RA. It certainly will be of interest to determine whether these biologic agents demonstrate efficacy in the intestinal and EIM of IBD.

Ankylosing spondylitis: new treatment modalities

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is a chronic and progressive inflammatory arthropathy that affects young adults. It is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, and can have a devastating effect on quality of life. Conventional therapeutic regimes have traditionally been insufficient to control symptoms and signs of disease, and have failed to halt disease progression. However, the outlook of AS has changed with the advent of biological agents that block pivotal inflammatory cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha. Ongoing research has proven these agents to be efficacious and safe in the short and medium term. Further, longer-term trials are awaited to address the issue of whether these therapies are true disease modifiers in AS.

Clinical assessment in the spondyloarthropathies, including psoriatic arthritis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The different diseases of the spondyloarthropathy concept share common clinical characteristics. Nevertheless, the assessment of disease activity/severity in an individual patient remains difficult. Specific research is starting to focus on the development of valid, feasible and reliable outcome tools that are sensitive to change.

RECENT FINDINGS

No global assessment instrument is available that evaluates the whole disease spectrum in spondyloarthropathy. The majority of tools are designed to measure a specific aspect of the disease. The Assessments in Ankylosing Spondylitis international working group response criteria have been validated in multiple trials and more stringent criteria are now emerging to describe the major responses seen with biologic agents. The assessment of peripheral arthritis is still essentially borrowed from other rheumatologic conditions with some modification as to the number of joints that need to be evaluated. With regard to the assessment of specific features such as enthesitis and dactylitis, new methods are proposed that await validation.

SUMMARY

New assessment tools or modifications to existing tools have been described, but most still need validation and general acceptance. The debate is ongoing as to whether one should evaluate the different aspects of the spondyloarthropathies separately or an 'all-in' assessment tool should be constructed.

Infliximab for the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) had previously been considered as a chronic disease with little therapeutic options. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and regular physiotherapy were the only treatment modalities available for patients with AS. The introduction of biologics into clinical practice has substantially broadened the therapeutic armamentarium in AS patients who are refractory to NSAIDs. Remicade (infliximab; Centocor, Inc., USA), a chimeric monoclonal antibody, targets TNF-alpha, and by inhibition of this proinflammatory cytokine, exerts strong clinical improvement of signs and symptoms of AS. In AS, infliximab 5 mg/kg body weight is usually given as an infusion at weeks 0, 2 and 6, and every 6 - 8 weeks thereafter. An improvement of the disease activity by at least 50% is seen in as many as 50% of AS patients treated with infliximab in addition to NSAIDs. Back pain and also peripheral manifestations, such as enthesitic sites and arthritis, improve, and quality of life significantly increases. In addition, elevated acute phase reactants return to normal or low levels, and active inflammatory lesions of the spine as detected by magnetic resonance imaging substantially regress during treatment with infliximab. Clinical improvement occurs during the first 2 weeks of treatment and the clinical response to infliximab, if given continuously, is sustained and long-lasting as follow-up data of ongoing studies show. The short-term benefit/risk ratio of infliximab is clearly in favour of the drug, and it is estimated that at present up to 30% of patients with active AS are in need of this kind of effective treatment.

Anti-TNF-α agents in the treatment of psoriatic arthritis

Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is a potentially debilitating disease that may affect small and large peripheral joints, entheses and the axial skeleton. The different clinical manifestations of PsA have been accounted for by various proposals of subdividing the patients into different subgroups. According to the predominant clinical symptoms, most patients can be classified as belonging to the spectrum of spondyloarthritides (SpA) or rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The conventional therapeutic approach comprises non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, systemic and intra-articular corticosteroids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs such as sulfasalazine, methotrexate, ciclosporin and leflunomide. Similar to RA, recent trials in PsA have shown excellent results with the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) blockers etanercept, infliximab and adalimumab, which have positive effects not only on joints, but also on the skin when affected by psoriasis, quality of life, function and slowing of disease progress, as evidenced radiologically. Anti-TNF therapy has been generally safe in clinical trials of PsA. Taken together, there has been definite recent progress in the treatment of PsA, especially for severely affected patients.

Continuation of treatment with infliximab in ankylosing spondylitis: 2-yr open follow-up

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the continuation and safety of treatment with infliximab in ankylosing spondylitis (AS) over a 2-yr period.

METHODS

This study was an open, observational, 2-yr extension study of an open-label study of three induction infusions of infliximab in refractory AS. The fourth infusion was performed only in case of relapse. Thereafter, infliximab was to be administered as needed according to the rheumatologist's opinion; however, for some patients, infusions were performed systematically.

RESULTS

None of the 50 recruited patients was lost to follow-up. Thirteen patients (26%) interrupted their treatment by infliximab: four for inefficacy, seven for adverse events, of which four were for allergic reactions to the infusion, and two for other reasons. For all of the 46 patients who had had three infusions judged efficacious and well tolerated, a fourth infusion was performed because of a flare of the disease, after a mean interval of 20.3+/-9.9 weeks (range 7.3-57.9). Over the 24 months, the mean interval between infusions was 11.6+/-9.0 weeks. This interval was longer when patients were treated only as needed (mean 14.3+/-12.1 weeks) than systematically (mean 9.8+/-5.7 weeks). Side-effects were similar to those noted in shorter-term studies; seven patients suffered serious adverse events. There were no deaths, no malignancies and no tuberculosis.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms the long-term treatment continuation of infliximab in AS, and shows an acceptable safety profile. It appears that for some patients the disease can be controlled with long intervals between infusions; these findings warrant further studies.

Pharmacoeconomic study of patients with chronic inflammatory joint disease before and during infliximab treatment

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate medical and work disability costs for patients with chronic inflammatory joint disease during one year before and one year after institution of infliximab treatment in routine clinical practice.

METHODS

Starting from 1999, clinical and laboratory variables for patients treated with biological agents for inflammatory rheumatic diseases were systematically recorded at Helsinki University Central Hospital. From this database clinical information was collected on 96 patients in whom infliximab was started during the period 1999 to 2001. Economic analyses were based on costs incurred because of outpatient and inpatient visits, orthopaedic operations, drugs used, and days on sickness or rehabilitation allowance. Medical and work disability costs were calculated separately for the one year period before (period I) and the one year period after institution of infliximab (period II).

RESULTS

Of the study group of 96 patients (arthritis duration 16 years (range 3 to 43)), 74 completed one year of infliximab treatment. Their clinical and laboratory variables improved significantly. The mean increase in medical costs during period II was euro12 015 (95% confidence interval, 6496 to 18,076). A minimal decrease in work disability costs occurred-mean decrease euro130 (-1268 to 1072).

CONCLUSIONS

One year treatment with infliximab in patients with longstanding aggressive arthritis showed a good clinical effect but raised medical costs significantly. Work disability costs failed to show a substantial decrease. Starting infliximab in the earlier stages of chronic arthritis could in the long term prevent work disability and thus decrease the total cost to society.

Chondroprotective drugs in degenerative joint diseases

Catabolic cytokine and anabolic growth factor pathways control destruction and repair in osteoarthritis (OA). A unidirectional TNF-alpha/IL-1-driven cytokine cascade disturbs the homeostasis of the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage in OA. Although chondrocytes in OA cartilage overexpress anabolic insulin-like growth factor (IGF) and its specific receptor (IGFRI) autocrine TNF-alpha released by apoptotic articular cartilage cells sets off an auto/paracrine IL-1-driven cascade that overrules the growth factor activities that sustain repair in degenerative joint disease. Chondroprotection with reappearance of a joint space that had disappeared has been documented unmistakably in peripheral joints of patients suffering from spondyloarthropathy when treated with TNF-alpha-blocking agents that repressed the unidirectional TNF-alpha/IL-1-driven cytokine cascade. A series of connective tissue structure-modifying agents (CTSMAs) that directly affect IL-1 synthesis and release in vitro and down-modulate downstream IL-1 features, e.g. collagenase, proteoglycanase and matrix metalloproteinase activities, the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, the increased release of nitric oxide, and the secretion of prostaglandin E(2), IL-6 and IL-8, have been shown to possess disease-modifying OA drug (DMOAD) activities in experimental models of OA and in human subjects with finger joint and knee OA. Examples are corticosteroids, some sulphated polysaccharides, chemically modified tetracyclines, diacetylrhein/rhein, glucosamine and avocado/soybean unsaponifiables.

Early Oligoarthritis

Oligoarthritis is a common condition, with a variable outcome, affecting a predominantly young population; when treated conventionally, oligoarthritis has a high morbidity. The variability of outcome has limited the development of studies evaluating therapies such as disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs in recent onset disease. Oligoarthritis is an important disease that warrants much greater study.

Therapy of ankylosing spondylitis. Part II: biological therapies in the spondyloarthritides

Therapeutic options for patients with active and severe spondylarthritis (SpA) have been fairly limited in the past decades. There is now accumulating evidence that biological therapy with agents directed against tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is highly efficacious in the spondyloarthritides, especially in ankylosing spondylitis (AS) and psoriatic arthritis (PsA). The TNF blocking agents currently available, infliximab (Remicade), etanercept (Enbrel), and adalimumab (Humira), are approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in Europe and the USA. In contrast to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) have limited efficacy in SpA. No DMARDs are available for AS patients with active spinal disease. Thus, for AS patients whose condition is not sufficiently controlled with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), therapy with TNF blockers may be considered as a first-line treatment. For infliximab, a dose of 3-5 mg/kg seems to be required, and intervals between 6 and 12 weeks are necessary to suppress disease activity continually. The standard dosage of etanercept is 2 x 25 mg subcutaneously (s.c.) per week. There are very few studies with adalimumab (standard dose in RA 20-40 mg s.c. every 1-2 weeks) in SpA. Infliximab and etanercept are now both approved for AS in Europe. There is some evidence that both agents also work in other SpA, especially in PsA. Withdrawal of long-term therapy in AS patients led to relapses of disease after several months. Less radiographic progression after 2 years of continuous treatment with infliximab compared to conventional therapy has been suggested in a small study. Serious adverse events on anti-TNF therapy have remained rare. However, severe infections, including tuberculosis, have been reported. These can be largely prevented by appropriate screening. The benefits of anti-TNF therapy in AS seem to outweigh these shortcomings.

Spondylarthropathies et médicaments anti-TNFα

PURPOSE

Spondylarthropathies are a heterogeneous group of disorders including ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, reactive arthritis, arthritis associated with inflammatory bowel disease, and undifferentiated spondylarthropathies. These diseases are characterised by inflammation in the spine, sacroiliac joints, entheses, peripheral joints, and a strong association with HLA-B27; they may cause severe destruction and/or ankylosis in a minority of patients. Conventional treatment includes non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroid injections, and DMARDs such as sulfasalazine in patients with peripheral arthritis. TNFalpha appears as an important actor in the pathogenesis of spondylarthropathies.

METHOD AND RESULTS

Among the anti-TNFalpha drugs, etanercept and infliximab have proved to be effective in the symptomatic treatment of ankylosing spondylitis and psoriatic arthritis. A clinical relapse was observed within a few weeks after treatment discontinuation in a majority of patients. Potential beneficial effects on the destructive and/or ankylosing evolution remains to be confirmed.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with active, severe and refractory spondylarthropathies are potential candidates for treatment with anti-TNFalpha drugs. Taking into account not only the efficacy but also the side effects, with rare but potentially severe complications such as tuberculosis or other opportunistic infections, and the relatively high cost of these drugs, preliminary criteria for the initiation, monitoring and discontinuation of these drugs in the treatment of spondylarthropathies were proposed. Long-term follow-up in large populations of patients with spondylarthropathies is necessary to better define the benefit/risk/cost ratio of anti-TNFalpha drugs.

Infliximab, but not etanercept, induces IgM anti-double-stranded DNA autoantibodies as main antinuclear reactivity: biologic and clinical implications in autoimmune arthritis

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the clinical and biologic correlates of autoantibody induction during longer-term tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) blockade with either the monoclonal antibody infliximab or the soluble receptor etanercept.

METHODS

Thirty-four patients with spondylarthropathy (SpA) and 59 patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) were treated with infliximab for 2 years. Additionally, 20 patients with SpA were treated with etanercept for 1 year. Sera were blindly analyzed for antinuclear antibodies (ANAs), anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) antibodies, anti-extractable nuclear antigen (anti-ENA) antibodies, and antihistone, anti-nucleosome, and anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL). The anti-dsDNA antibodies were isotyped.

RESULTS

High numbers of infliximab-treated patients with SpA or RA had newly induced ANAs (61.8% and 40.7%, respectively) and anti-dsDNA antibodies (70.6% and 49.2%, respectively) after 1 year, but no further increase between year 1 and year 2 was observed. In contrast, induction of ANAs and anti-dsDNA antibodies was observed only occasionally in the etanercept-treated patients with SpA (10% of patients each). Isotyping revealed almost exclusively IgM or IgM/IgA anti-dsDNA antibodies, which disappeared upon interruption of treatment. Neither infliximab nor etanercept induced other lupus-related reactivities such as anti-ENA antibodies, antihistone antibodies, or anti-nucleosome antibodies, and no clinically relevant lupus-like symptoms were observed. Similarly, infliximab but not etanercept selectively increased IgM but not IgG aCL titers.

CONCLUSION

The prominent ANA and anti-dsDNA autoantibody response is not a pure class effect of TNFalpha blockers, is largely restricted to short-term IgM responses, and is not associated with other serologic or clinical signs of lupus. Similar findings with aCL suggest that modulation of humoral immunity may be a more general feature of infliximab treatment.

Diverse effects of infliximab and etanercept on T lymphocytes

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antagonists infliximab and etanercept have proven to be useful additions to the armamentarium of agents used to manage patients with inflammatory disorders. However, as discussed in detail elsewhere in this supplement, these agents have different mechanisms of action and distinct safety and efficacy profiles in the clinical setting. Of particular interest are differing effects on T lymphocytes, thymocyte-derived cells that are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Recent studies in 2 disease states, ankylosing spondylitis and Crohn's disease, have assessed the effects of TNF antagonists on T lymphocytes and reported differences that could partially explain some of the clinical disparities that have been reported.

Current concepts in the therapy of the spondyloarthritides

Recent success in the treatment of patients with the more severe forms of spondyloarthritides (SpA) has dramatically changed old paradigms. There is evidence that anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha therapy is highly effective in SpA, especially in ankylosing spondylitis (AS) and psoriatic arthritis. Based on recent data on more than 1000 patients with AS and psoriatic arthritis, this treatment seems to be even more effective than in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The currently available anti-TNFalpha agents, infliximab, etanercept, and adalimumab, are approved for the treatment of RA in the US and in Europe. TNFalpha blockers may even be considered as a first-line treatment in patients with active AS whose condition is not sufficiently controlled with NSAIDs, as in the case of axial disease. There is preliminary evidence that both agents also work in other SpA, such as undifferentiated SpA. There is hope that ankylosis may be preventable, but it remains to be shown whether patients benefit from long-term anti-TNFalpha therapy and whether radiologic progression and ankylosis can be stopped. Furthermore, it seems that anti-TNFalpha therapy can also improve clinical manifestations of other inflammatory spinal disorders, such as sciatica and back pain caused by disc herniation, or possibly even intermittent inflammatory states of degenerative disc disease. Severe adverse events from treatment with anti-TNFalpha continue to be rare. Tuberculosis can be largely prevented by appropriate screening. As it stands now, the benefits of anti-TNFalpha therapy in AS seem to outweigh the shortcomings.

Anti-TNF agents for the treatment of spondyloarthropathies

For the treatment of spondyloarthropathies (SpA), therapeutic options using disease-modifying drugs are rather limited compared to other inflammatory rheumatic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This is especially true for the spinal symptoms of the spondyloarthropathies, of which ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is the prototype. New TNF-alpha blockers have been proven highly effective in improving the spinal symptoms and extra-spinal manifestations of SpA. Convincing data in the form of placebo-controlled trials are already available for AS and psoriatic arthritis (PsA). However, limited data suggests that TNF-alpha blockers might be similarly effective in other spondylolarthropathies. Side effects, mainly infections and allergic reactions, occur similar to those observed in RA treatment. Currently, there is no reason to combine TNF-alpha blockers with other disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) for the treatment of AS and other SpA, as these DMARDs are not effective. Thus, TNF-alpha blockers seem to be a major breakthrough in the treatment of SpA. The patients who are primary candidates for such treatments are yet to be defined, particularly in light of the high costs and unknown long-term side effects involved. Furthermore, future studies need to show whether these biologicals not only suppress inflammation but also prevent long-term bony damage.

Open-Label 24-Month Study Evaluating Infliximab Therapy in Patients with Psoriatic Spondyloarthropathy

Psoriatic spondyloarthropathy (PsSA) is a common and relatively typical form of spondyloarthropathy, affecting the axial skeleton with peripheral synovitis. Also, extraarticular as well as skin manifestations are sometimes difficult to diagnose and to treat. Recent studies demonstrated that anti-tumor necrosis factor therapies are useful in treating and controlling disease activity. We conducted an open-label 2-year study in 16 patients to evaluate the efficacy and safety of long-term compliance with intravenous infliximab therapy in patients with severe skin and refractory PsSA, with an incomplete response to methotrexate, azathioprine, cyclosporine, and/or sulfasalazine. Patients continued to receive only weekly methotrexate therapy during the study that included 16 patients (9 men, 7 women; mean age 38 +/- 12.5 years [SD]) with psoriatic spondyloarthropathy for 16.4 +/- 9.2 years. Each patient underwent complete physical examination before treatment and at each visit until the end of the study. Results of patient global pain assessment (VAS scale), investigator opinion on global assessment of disease activity (100 mm VAS), patient body weight and blood pressure, ACR response (20%, 50%, and 70%), laboratory parameters (CRP, ESR, WBC, RBC, liver enzymes, etc.), and PASI (skin score) were recorded. We conclude that infliximab therapy was effective in controlling joint and skin disease, having an acceptable safety profile and very good compliance when considering this type of patient. However, further long-term, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials are necessary to validate these results.

Role of biological agents in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases

A new era in the treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory disorders has begun with the clinical availability of anticytokine therapy. Biological agents that are currently available include 3 agents that decrease the activity of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (infliximab, adalimumab, etanercept) and an interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (anakinra), with many more in development. Those extraordinarily effective medications are an important addition to our therapeutic armamentarium, and, although originally developed for rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn disease, have been found to be efficacious in the treatment of seronegative spondyloarthropathies (psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis) and juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Their role is currently being defined in other autoimmune disorders such as uveitis, sarcoidosis, interstitial lung disease, vasculitis, inflammatory myopathies, graft-versus-host disease, and Sjögren syndrome.

Delayed response to anti-tuberculosis treatment in a patient on infliximab

The introduction of infliximab, an anti-TNF-alpha agent, in the treatment of rheumatic diseases has offered important therapeutic advances in recent years. The main adverse effect from the usage of this drug is susceptibility to infections, mainly reactivation of latent tuberculosis. We present a 23 year-old male with ankylosing spondylitis, who developed endobronchial and widespread pulmonary tuberculosis, 2 years after initiation of treatment with infliximab. The patient had already been treated for a positive PPD skin test with a 9-month prophylactic course of isoniazid. He was treated with a five drug anti-tuberculosis scheme but he showed an extremely slow therapeutic response with daily high fever, even 4 months after initiation of treatment. Seven months after beginning anti-tuberculosis therapy, bronchoscopy still revealed necrotic and inflammatory tissue at the site of the original lesions. This unusual clinical course of tuberculosis infection was attributed to immunosuppression due to the long-lasting anti-TNF-alpha action of infliximab.

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha blockade in ankylosing spondylitis: a potent but expensive anti-inflammatory treatment or true disease modification?

Blocking tumor necrosis factor-α either with monoclonal antibodies or with soluble receptor constructs has been proven to be effective with an acceptable safety profile in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, and more recently also in the diseases belonging to the spondyloarthropathy concept. Nevertheless multiple questions still remain unresolved especially concerning longer-term treatment. Data from a recent manuscript by Baraliakos and colleagues seem to indicate that at least for the vast majority of ankylosing spondylitis patients treatment with infliximab can not be withdrawn, if one wants to control disease activity in a continuous way. Although still unproven, this might be of crucial importance with regard to structure modification and prevention of ankylosis in this chronic inflammatory disorder.

Psoriatic arthritis treatment: biological response modifiers

In recent years there has been a surge of interest in the treatment of chronic inflammatory disorders as a result of the development and application of targeted biological therapies. The elucidation of the overlapping cellular and cytokine immunopathology of such diverse conditions as rheumatoid arthritis (RA), Crohn's disease, and psoriasis points to specific targets for bioengineered proteins or small molecules. Similar to clinical trials in RA, trials in psoriatic arthritis (PsA) have shown excellent clinical results with the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) blockers, etanercept, infliximab, and adalimumab in a variety of domains including the joints, quality of life, function, and slowing of disease progress as evidenced radiologically. In addition, these agents have shown benefit in domains more unique to PsA, such as the skin lesions of psoriasis, enthesitis, and dactylitis, pointing out the similar pathogenesis of the disease in the skin, the tendons, and the synovial membrane. This therapy has been generally safe and well tolerated in clinical trials of PsA. Other logical candidates for targeted therapy in development include other anti-TNF agents, costimulatory blockade agents that affect T cell function, blockers of other cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1, 6, 12, 15, or 18, and B cell modulatory medicines. Also, it will be useful to learn more about the effects of combining traditional disease modifying drugs and the newer biologicals.

Efficacy and safety of infliximab in patients with ankylosing spondylitis: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial (ASSERT)

OBJECTIVE

The signs and symptoms of ankylosing spondylitis (AS) respond inadequately to nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs in quite a number of patients. Tumor necrosis factor inhibitors have demonstrated success in reducing AS disease activity in a limited number of clinical trials. The objective of this multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of infliximab in patients with AS.

METHODS

Patients were randomly assigned to receive infusions of placebo or 5 mg/kg infliximab at weeks 0, 2, 6, 12, and 18. Efficacy was assessed using the ASsessment in Ankylosing Spondylitis (ASAS) International Working Group criteria, the Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Disease Activity Index (BASDAI), night pain, patient's global assessment, the Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Functional Index (BASFI), the Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Metrology Index (BASMI), chest expansion, the Mander enthesis index, the total swollen joint index, the C-reactive protein level, and the Short Form 36 (SF-36) health survey questionnaire. The primary end point in this study was the proportion of patients with a 20% improvement response according to the ASAS International Working Group criteria (ASAS20 responders) at week 24.

RESULTS

Of the 357 patients screened, 201 were assigned to receive 5 mg/kg infliximab and 78 were assigned to receive placebo. After 24 weeks, 61.2% of patients in the infliximab group were ASAS20 responders compared with 19.2% of patients in the placebo group (P < 0.001). Clinical benefit was observed in patients receiving infliximab as early as week 2 and was maintained over the 24-week study period. Patients receiving infliximab also showed significant improvements in the BASDAI, BASFI, BASMI, chest expansion, and physical component summary score of the SF-36. Adverse events were reported by 82.2% of patients receiving infliximab and by 72.0% of patients receiving placebo; however, most adverse events in both treatment groups were mild or moderate in severity.

CONCLUSION

Infliximab was well tolerated and effective in a large cohort of patients with AS during a 24-week study period.

Structure-modifying capacity of anti-tumour necrosis factor-alpha therapy in ankylosing spondylitis

Spondylarthropathies (SpA) present mainly with spondylitis, pauciarticular peripheral arthritis and enthesopathy. Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is the prototype disease in this concept. Other entities include reactive arthritis, arthritis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease, some forms of psoriatic arthritis and undifferentiated SpA. NSAIDs are the classical cornerstone of medical therapy in patients with SpA. The effect of these drugs on disease progression, more specifically the ankylosis, is uncertain. Sulfasalazine can be combined with NSAIDs, particularly if peripheral arthritis symptoms persist. However, this combination therapy is not effective for the spondylitis symptoms. Indeed, AS is one of the rheumatic diseases for which no real disease-modifying antirheumatic treatment is available. Challenges in chronic autoimmune arthritis have changed dramatically, especially since biotechnological compounds became available. These compounds allow for a specific intervention in the immune cascade underlying the disease. Tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha antagonists (monoclonal antibodies such as infliximab, or soluble receptors such as etanercept) are the first representative drugs in this category. Open-label studies have shown the efficacy of these new targeted drugs, which has been confirmed by controlled studies, at least in the short term. Improvements in several clinical parameters, function, quality of life, biological parameters, histopathological synovial characteristics and magnetic resonance imaging, have all been observed. As a result of these favourable results, anti-TNFalpha therapy has been approved for the treatment of AS and should be considered for patients with severe axial symptoms and elevated serological markers of inflammatory activity who have responded inadequately to conventional nonsteroidal therapy. There is evidence that this new therapeutic approach has a disease- and even structure-modifying effect in SpA. In this context, structure modification should not only be seen as inhibition of bone and cartilage destruction but more broadly as modulation of tissue histology. Some questions remain unanswered, such as the long-term efficacy and safety of anti-TNFalpha therapy, the extent of structural benefit and the cost effectiveness. However, despite these concerns, anti-TNFalpha therapy represents a major therapeutic advancement in the treatment of AS.

Infliximab improves signs and symptoms of psoriatic arthritis: results of the IMPACT 2 trial

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate further in a phase III, double blind trial the efficacy of infliximab in patients with active psoriatic arthritis (PsA), as observed in the smaller IMPACT trial.

METHODS

200 patients with active PsA unresponsive to previous treatment were randomised to infusions of infliximab 5 mg/kg or placebo at weeks 0, 2, 6, 14, and 22. Patients with inadequate response entered early escape at week 16. The primary measure of clinical response was ACR20. Other measures included Psoriatic Arthritis Response Criteria (PsARC), Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI), and dactylitis and enthesopathy assessments.

RESULTS

At week 14, 58% of patients receiving infliximab and 11% of those receiving placebo achieved an ACR20 response and 77% of infliximab patients and 27% of placebo patients achieved PsARC (both p<0.001). Among the 85% of patients with at least 3% body surface area psoriasis involvement at baseline, 53/83 (64%) patients receiving infliximab had at least 75% improvement in PASI compared with 2/87 (2%) patients receiving placebo at week 14 (p<0.001). These therapeutic effects were maintained through the last evaluation (week 24). Fewer infliximab patients than placebo patients had dactylitis at week 14 (18% v 30%; p = 0.025) and week 24 (12% v 34%; p<0.001). Fewer infliximab patients (22%) than placebo patients (34%) had active enthesopathy at week 14 (p = 0.016); corresponding figures at week 24 were 20% and 37% (p = 0.002). Infliximab was generally well tolerated, with a similar incidence of adverse events in each group.

CONCLUSIONS

Infliximab 5 mg/kg through 24 weeks significantly improved active PsA, including dactylitis and enthesopathy, and associated psoriasis.

Novel pharmacological approaches in the treatment of psoriasis

Progress in the understanding of psoriasis as a T-cell mediated inflammatory disease has led to the development of new immunomodulatory therapies. Currently the main focus is on the so-called biologics (or biological agents), including fusion proteins, monoclonal antibodies, cytokines and selective receptors. They mainly target single steps in the complex cascade of humoral and cellular inflammatory immuno-mechanisms that finally lead to the accelerated growth of epidermal and vascular cells in the psoriatic lesions. The most promising and advanced biological agents are discussed along with their influence on the critical pathophysiological steps in psoriasis, including depletion of T cells, blockade of initial T-cell activation and T-cell receptor (TCR) stimulation, blockade of costimulatory signals and T-cell proliferative signals as well as restoration of the T helper type 1 (Th1)/Th2 balance by diminishing type 1 cytokines and administration of type 2 cytokines. In addition to the biological agents, further development of 'classical' dermatological therapies, such as retinoids, or the discovery of new indications for non-dermatological agents contribute to the novel pharmacological approaches in the treatment of psoriasis.