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Stadnyk AMJ, Impellizzeri FM, Stanley J, Menaspà P, Slattery KM. Testing, Training, and Optimising Performance of Track Cyclists: A Systematic Mapping Review. Sports Med 2021; 52:391-401. [PMID: 34591266 PMCID: PMC8803767 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01565-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Background Track cyclists must develop mental, physical, tactical and technical capabilities to achieve success at an elite level. Given the importance of these components in determining performance, it is of interest to understand the volume of evidence to support implementation in practice by coaches, practitioners, and athletes. Objective The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic mapping review to describe the current scale and density of research for testing, training and optimising performance in track cycling. Methods All publications involving track cyclist participants were reviewed from four databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Academic Search Complete, Cochrane Library) plus additional sources. Search results returned 4019 records, of which 71 met the inclusion criteria for the review. Results The review revealed most published track cycling research investigated athlete testing followed by performance optimisation, with training being the least addressed domain. Research on the physical components of track cycling has been published far more frequently than for tactical or technical components, and only one study was published on the mental components of track cycling. No true experimental research using track cyclists has been published, with 51 non-experimental and 20 quasi-experimental study designs. Conclusions Research in track cycling has been growing steadily. However, it is evident there is a clear preference toward understanding the physical—rather than mental, tactical, or technical—demands of track cycling. Future research should investigate how this aligns with coach, practitioner, and athlete needs for achieving track cycling success. Registration This systematic mapping review was registered on the Open Science Framework (osf.io/wt7eq). Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01565-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony M J Stadnyk
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
- New South Wales Institute of Sport, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
| | - Franco M Impellizzeri
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jamie Stanley
- South Australian Sports Institute, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Australian Cycling Team, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Paolo Menaspà
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Katie M Slattery
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Ripari P, Viciano J, Mazzia M, Pasquali M, Di Domizio G, Ruggieri S, D'Anastasio R. The anthropometric profile of Italian elite cyclists. GAZZETTA MEDICA ITALIANA ARCHIVIO PER LE SCIENZE MEDICHE 2020. [DOI: 10.23736/s0393-3660.19.04115-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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van der Zwaard S, de Ruiter CJ, Jaspers RT, de Koning JJ. Anthropometric Clusters of Competitive Cyclists and Their Sprint and Endurance Performance. Front Physiol 2019; 10:1276. [PMID: 31649555 PMCID: PMC6794383 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Do athletes specialize toward sports disciplines that are well aligned with their anthropometry? Novel machine-learning algorithms now enable scientists to cluster athletes based on their individual anthropometry while integrating multiple anthropometric dimensions, which may provide new perspectives on anthropometry-dependent sports specialization. We aimed to identify clusters of competitive cyclists based on their individual anthropometry using multiple anthropometric measures, and to evaluate whether athletes with a similar anthropometry also competed in the same cycling discipline. Additionally, we assessed differences in sprint and endurance performance between the anthropometric clusters. Twenty-four nationally and internationally competitive male cyclists were included from sprint, pursuit, and road disciplines. Anthropometry was measured and k-means clustering was performed to divide cyclists into three anthropometric subgroups. Sprint performance (Wingate 1-s peak power, squat-jump mean power) and endurance performance (mean power during a 15 km time trial, V˙O2peak) were obtained. K-means clustering assigned sprinters to a mesomorphic cluster (endo-, meso-, and ectomorphy were 2.8, 5.0, and 2.4; n = 6). Pursuit and road cyclists were distributed over a short meso-ectomorphic cluster (1.6, 3.8, and 3.9; n = 9) and tall meso-ectomorphic cluster (1.5, 3.6, and 4.0; n = 9), the former consisting of significantly lighter, shorter, and smaller cyclists (p < 0.05). The mesomorphic cluster demonstrated higher sprint performance (p < 0.05), whereas the meso-ectomorphic clusters established higher endurance performance (p < 0.001). Overall, endurance performance was associated with lean ectomorph cyclists with small girths and small frontal area (p < 0.05), and sprint performance related to cyclists with larger skinfolds, larger girths, and low frontal area per body mass (p < 0.05). Clustering optimization revealed a mesomorphic cluster of sprinters with high sprint performance and short and tall meso-ectomorphic clusters of pursuit and road cyclists with high endurance performance. Anthropometry-dependent specialization was partially confirmed, as the clustering algorithm distinguished short and tall endurance-type cyclists (matching the anthropometry of all-terrain and flat-terrain road cyclists) rather than pursuit and road cyclists. Machine-learning algorithms therefore provide new insights in how athletes match their sports discipline with their individual anthropometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan van der Zwaard
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Cornelis J de Ruiter
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Richard T Jaspers
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Laboratory for Myology, Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jos J de Koning
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, United States
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Abstract
Track cycling events range from a 200 m flying sprint (lasting 10 to 11 seconds) to the 50 km points race (lasting approximately 1 hour). Unlike road cycling competitions where most racing is undertaken at submaximal power outputs, the shorter track events require the cyclist to tax maximally both the aerobic and anaerobic (oxygen independent) metabolic pathways. Elite track cyclists possess key physical and physiological attributes which are matched to the specific requirements of their events: these cyclists must have the appropriate genetic predisposition which is then maximised through effective training interventions. With advances in technology it is now possible to accurately measure both power supply and demand variables under competitive conditions. This information provides better resolution of factors that are important for training programme design and skill development.
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Affiliation(s)
- N P Craig
- Australian Institute of Sport, Track Cycling Unit Adelaide, Henley Beach, South Australia.
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Abstract
In many sports, training for successful competition has become virtually a year-round endeavour. To assist in better preparation, a competitor's year may be divided into phases such as off-season and in-season, indicating reduced or increased competition commitments, respectively. A number of studies have described the effects of seasons or periods of competition, training, detraining and reduced training on aspects of physical fitness. Depending on performance level, the type of sport and the fitness parameter in question, the swings in fitness variables reported may be as high as 18% from one season to another. In elite competitors, anaerobic parameters, heart frequencies, subcutaneous fat, flexibility and haemoglobin levels remain relatively unchanged throughout the year. Aerobic metabolism and muscular strength may demonstrate noticeable (mostly unfavourable) changes, and plasma hormonal levels normally follow changes in training intensities. Aspects related to long term fatigue and genetics, and to appropriate training are just a few explanations for these observations. It is still not known whether greater fitness gains attainable with longer off-season training programmes can be successfully maintained over the duration of the competition season. However, the consensus would seem to be that specialised training (based on technique and competition tactics only) is inadequate for fitness maintenance and/or improvements. This is perhaps supported by the general trends found in the literature regarding muscular strength: while supervised off-season conditioning programmes may result in significant improvements for both recreational and competitive athletes, no such changes are normally observed after competition seasons. These findings may reflect, amongst other factors, a lack of optimal training intensity to bring about strength increases during in-season periods. In novices and in athletes at low competitive levels, training seasons may lead to considerable functional improvements of the cardiorespiratory system, coupled with occasional increases in muscular strength and decreases in body fat. Relatively low fitness levels at the beginning of training have been put forward as an explanation for these improvements. Seasons of training and competition result in no significant changes in flexibility measurements. Similar changes to those found in novices and in athletes at low competitive levels may also be seen in children and adolescents engaged in sport, although their fitness improvements are consistent with normal patterns of growth and development. No differences have been identified between male and female athletes participating at different competition levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Koutedakis
- School of Health Sciences, Wolverhampton University, England
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Craig NP, Norton KI, Bourdon PC, Woolford SM, Stanef T, Squires B, Olds TS, Conyers RA, Walsh CB. Aerobic and anaerobic indices contributing to track endurance cycling performance. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND OCCUPATIONAL PHYSIOLOGY 1993; 67:150-8. [PMID: 8223521 DOI: 10.1007/bf00376659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
A group of 18 male high performance track endurance and sprint cyclists were assessed to provide a descriptive training season specific physiological profile, to examine the relationship between selected physiological and anthropometric variables and cycling performance in a 4000-m individual pursuit (IP4000) and to propose a functional model for predicting success in the IP4000. Anthropometric characteristics, absolute and relative measurements of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), blood lactate transition thresholds (Thla- and Th(an),i), VO2 kinetics, cycling economy and maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) were assessed, with cyclists also performing a IP4000 under competition conditions. Peak post-competition blood lactate concentrations and acid-base values were measured. Although all corresponding indices of Thla- and Th(an),i occurred at significantly different intensities there were high intercorrelations between them (0.51-0.85). There was no significant difference in MAOD when assessed using a 2 or 5 min protocol (61.4 vs 60.2 ml.kg-1, respectively). The highest significant correlations were found among IP4000 and the following: VO2max (ml.kg-2/3.min-1; r = -0.79), power output at lactate threshold (Wthla) (W; r = -0.86), half time of VO2 response whilst cycling at 115% VO2max (s; r = 0.48) and MAOD when assessed using the 5 min protocol (ml.kg-1; r = -0.50). A stepwise multiple regression yielded the following equation, which had an r of 0.86 and a standard error of estimate of 5.7 s: IP4000 (s) = 462.9 - 0.366 x (Wthla) - 0.306 x (MAOD) - 0.438 x (VO2max) where Wthla is in W, MAOD is in ml.kg-1 and VO2max is in ml.kg-1 x min-1.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- N P Craig
- South Australian Sports Institute, Adelaide
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Abstract
An anthropometric analysis was conducted on 35 elite male Australian track cyclists having a mean age of 22.6 years and who had been competing on average for 9 years. The relationship of anthropometric parameters to both bicycle saddle height and cycling performance was also investigated. Subjects were allocated, for purposes of comparison, to an endurance or sprint group on the basis of their competitive event. The group members in total were ectomorphic mesomorphs of height 178 +/- 4.8 cm and weight 72.5 +/- 6.6 kg on average. Percentage of saddle height to lower limb length averaged 99 +/- 1.6%, and significant correlations existed between strength and both body mass (r = 0.57) and thigh girth (r = 0.55). No significant correlation was seen between any anthropometric parameter and performance in an individual event. Cyclists in the spint group were heavier (76.2 +/- 7.4 vs. 70.0 +/- 4.7 kg, P less than 0.01) and stronger (258 +/- 44.4 vs. 216 +/- 30.5 Nm, P less than 0.01), and had larger chest (98.2 +/- 6.2 vs. 92.4 +/- 2.9 cm, P less than 0.01), arm (33.0 +/- 2.2 vs. 30.7 +/- 1.6 cm, P less than 0.01), thigh (57.5 +/- 3.4 vs. 54.3 +/- 2.5 cm, P less than 0.01) and calf girths (37.8 +/- 1.7 vs. 36.2 +/- 1.9 cm, P less than 0.05) than cyclists in the endurance group. They were also more mesomorphic (5.3 +/- 0.7 vs. 4.7 +/- 0.8, P less than 0.05) and less ectomorphic (2.3 +/- 0.9 vs. 2.9 +/- 0.6, P less than 0.05) than the endurance cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- B D McLean
- Department of Anatomy, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Australia
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Abstract
An anthropometric analysis was conducted upon 36 competitive male cyclists (mean age 23.4 years) who had been competing on average for 8.2 years. Cyclists were allocated to one of four groups; sprint, pursuit, road and time trial according to their competitive strengths. The sample included cyclists who were classified as category 1, 2, 3 or professional (British Cycling Federation and Professional Cycling Association). The sprint cyclists were significantly shorter and more mesomorphic than the other three groups (p less than 0.05). The time trialists were the tallest, most ectomorphic group, having the longest legs (p less than 0.01), the highest leg length/height ratio (p less than 0.05) and the greatest bitrochanteric width (p less than 0.05). The pursuit and road cyclists were found to have similar physiques, which were located between those of the sprinters and time trialists. The biomechanical implications of these differences in physique may be related to the high rate of pedal revolutions required by sprinters and the higher gear ratios used by time trialists.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Foley
- Department of Movement Studies, Christ Church College, University of Ulster, Jordanstown, Northern Ireland
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Abstract
A 30-s 'all-out' power protocol was studied in four groups of racing cyclists including internationals (n = 8), Category 1 (n = 10), Category 2 (n = 15) and Category 3 (n = 11). Following warm-up each subject completed five trials interspersed by 3 min of low intensity exercise on an ergowheel racing cycle ergometry system at a power output of 15 W kg-1 body weight, generated at 130 rev min-1. Temporal indices of performance included delay time (DT) to achieve the power criterion, total time (TT) of the maintenance of the power criterion and the ratio of TT/DT. 'Explosive' leg strength was assessed from a vertical jump. The results indicated that international and Category 1 cyclists had lower DT (2.2 +/- 0.1 s and 2.1 +/- 0.0 s, respectively; P less than 0.05), higher TT (28.1 +/- 0.7 s and 27.0 +/- 0.7 s, respectively; P less than 0.05) and elevated TT/DT (12.8 and 12.9, respectively; P less than 0.01). 'Explosive' leg strength was also higher (P less than 0.05) in the internationals than in the other groups of cyclists. The protocol provides a sport-related method for the assessment of short term endurance performance ability in racing cyclists which may be of value in identifying the anaerobic capability of individual cyclists.
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Abstract
The maximal aerobic performance (VO2 max) and energy costs of cycling at various power outputs and equivalent road speeds of a highly trained endurance cyclist (age 23.4 yrs, height 1.95 m, weight 73.1 kg), were measured in the laboratory on an eddy-current cycle ergometer, and the physiological responses related to determinations made during a 24 h cycling time trial event, using continuous ECG recording from which estimates of ergogenic demands were obtained. The cyclist covered a distance of 694 km during the event at an average speed of 28.9 km.h-1 which corresponded to an equivalent oxygen cost of 38.5 ml.kg-1 min-1 and represented approximately 55% of his VO2 max. During the event, the cyclist expended an estimated 82,680 kJ of energy, of which approximately 44,278 kJ (54%) were supplied by repeated feedings of liquids, solids and semi-solids and some 38,402 kJ (46%) came from the stored energy reserves which resulted in a 1.19 kg loss of body weight during the event. The energy demands of the activity were more than three times greater than the highest recorded values of severe industrial work, and similar to the hourly rates of expenditure of shorter duration competitive events, but above the highest values reported over other extreme endurance events over the same period of time. The results thus represent near maximal levels of sustainable ergogenic effort by man over a complete 24 h cycle.
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