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Tiemeier L, Nikolaidis PT, Chlíbková D, Wilhelm M, Thuany M, Weiss K, Knechtle B. Ultra-Cycling- Past, Present, Future: A Narrative Review. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2024; 10:48. [PMID: 38679655 PMCID: PMC11056358 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-024-00715-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultra-endurance events are gaining popularity in multiple exercise disciplines, including cycling. With increasing numbers of ultra-cycling events, aspects influencing participation and performance are of interest to the cycling community. MAIN BODY The aim of this narrative review was, therefore, to assess the types of races offered, the characteristics of the cyclists, the fluid and energy balance during the race, the body mass changes after the race, and the parameters that may enhance performance based on existing literature. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar using the search terms 'ultracycling', 'ultra cycling', 'ultra-cycling', 'ultra-endurance biking', 'ultra-bikers' and 'prolonged cycling'. The search yielded 948 results, of which 111 were relevant for this review. The studies were classified according to their research focus and the results were summarized. The results demonstrated changes in physiological parameters, immunological and oxidative processes, as well as in fluid and energy balance. While the individual race with the most published studies was the Race Across America, most races were conducted in Europe, and a trend for an increase in European participants in international races was observed. Performance seems to be affected by characteristics such as age and sex but not by anthropometric parameters such as skin fold thickness. The optimum age for the top performance was around 40 years. Most participants in ultra-cycling events were male, but the number of female athletes has been increasing over the past years. Female athletes are understudied due to their later entry and less prominent participation in ultra-cycling races. A post-race energy deficit after ultra-cycling events was observed. CONCLUSION Future studies need to investigate the causes for the observed optimum race age around 40 years of age as well as the optimum nutritional supply to close the observed energy gap under consideration of the individual race lengths and conditions. Another research gap to be filled by future studies is the development of strategies to tackle inflammatory processes during the race that may persist in the post-race period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Tiemeier
- Centre for Rehabilitation & Sports Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Inselspital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Daniela Chlíbková
- Centre of Sports Activities, Brno University of Technology, 61669, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Matthias Wilhelm
- Centre for Rehabilitation & Sports Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Inselspital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001, St. Gallen, Switzerland.
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Ye L, Wang X, Konno T, Gong X, Ding H, Yan H, Ji ZS, Liu E. Fat reducing effects of Nelumbo nucifera leaf extract in overweight patients. Nat Prod Res 2021; 36:4776-4781. [PMID: 34852695 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2021.2010196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The leaf of Nelumbo nucifera (Family Nelumbonaceae) has been widely included in the diet of Chinese people from the time of the Min Dynasty. In this study, a randomized double-blind trial (n = 60) was performed to determine the effects of extract from sun dried Nelumbo nucifera leaves (NnEx), which included quercetin-3-glucuronide (Q3GA) as the main components, in overweight patients (24 kg/m2<body mass index < 28 kg/m2) during 12 weeks. For both men and women, compared with those in the non-intervention control groups, the whole body fat was significantly decreased after NnEx ingestion, and men also significantly reduced visceral fat and waist circumference after NnEx ingestion compared with those in the control group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyi Ye
- NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies), Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaolin Wang
- Division of Research and Development, Meiji Co., Ltd, Hachiouji, Japan
| | - Tomonobu Konno
- Division of Research and Development, Meiji Co., Ltd, Hachiouji, Japan
| | - Xiangyu Gong
- College of Food Sciences and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Ding
- Division of Research and Development, Meiji Co., Ltd, Hachiouji, Japan
| | - Hua Yan
- Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zai-Si Ji
- Division of Research and Development, Meiji Co., Ltd, Hachiouji, Japan.,NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies), Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Enuo Liu
- College of Food Sciences and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Reproduction Regulation (Shanghai Institute for Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Technologies), Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Williams J, Douglas J, Davies E, Bloom F, Castejon-Riber C. Performance demands in the endurance rider. COMPARATIVE EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/cep200033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Endurance is one of the fastest growing equestrian disciplines worldwide. Races are long distance competitions (40-160 km), organised into loops, over variable terrain usually within one day. Horse and rider combinations in endurance races have to complete the course in good condition whilst also aiming to win. Horse welfare is paramount within the sport and horses are required to ‘pass’ a veterinary check prior to racing, after each loop of the course and at the end of the race. Despite the health, fitness and welfare of both athletes within the horse-rider dyad being essential to achieve success, few equivalent measures assessing the wellbeing of the endurance rider are implemented. This review considers evidence from ultra-endurance sports and rider performance in other equestrian disciplines, to consider physiological and psychological strategies the endurance rider could use to enhance their competition performance. Successful endurance riding requires an effective partnership to be established between horse and rider. Within this partnership, adequate rider health and fitness are key to optimal decision-making to manage the horse effectively during training and competition, but just as importantly riders should manage themselves as an athlete. Targeted management for superior rider performance can underpin more effective decision-making promoting ethical equitation practices and optimising competition performance. Therefore, the responsible and competitive endurance rider needs to consider how they prepare themselves adequately for participation in the sport. This should include engaging in appropriate physiological training for fitness and musculoskeletal strength and conditioning. Alongside planning nutritional strategies to support rider performance in training and within the pre-, peri- and post-competition periods to promote superior physical and cognitive performance, and prevent injury. By applying an evidence informed approach to self-management, the endurance athlete will support the horse and rider partnership to achieve to their optimal capacity, whilst maximising both parties physical and psychological wellbeing.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.M. Williams
- Department of Animal Science, Hartpury University, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom
| | - J. Douglas
- Department of Animal Science, Hartpury University, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom
| | - E. Davies
- Department of Animal Science, Hartpury University, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom
| | - F. Bloom
- Department of Animal Science, Hartpury University, Gloucester, GL19 3BE, United Kingdom
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Jörres M, Gunga HC, Steinach M. Physiological Changes, Activity, and Stress During a 100-km-24-h Walking-March. Front Physiol 2021; 12:640710. [PMID: 33776795 PMCID: PMC7991843 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.640710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Long-endurance exercises like ultramarathons are known to elicit various metabolic and physiological changes in the human body. However, little is known about very long-duration exercise at low intensities regarding healthy human subjects. Aim The purpose of this study was to evaluate changes in body composition and metabolism in long-endurance but low-intensity events. Methods Twenty-five male and 18 female healthy recreational athletes (age 34.6 ± 8.8 years; BMI: 22.4 ± 2.0 kg/m2) of the "100 km Mammutmarsch" were recruited for participation during the events in 2014-2016. Other than classical ultramarathons, the "Mammutmarsch" is a hiking event, in which participants were required to walk but not run or jog. It was expected to complete the 100-km distance within 24 h, resulting in a calculated mean speed of 4.17 km/h, which fits to the mean speed observed (4.12 ± 0.76 km/h). As not all participants reached the finish line, comparison of finishers (FIN, n = 11) and non-finishers (NON, n = 21) allowed differential assessment of performance. Body composition measured through bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) was determined pre- and post-event, and serum samples were taken pre-event, at 30, 70, and 100 km to determine NT-pro-BNP, troponin T, C-reactive protein (CRP), cortisol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), triglycerides, total cholesterol, total creatine kinase (CK), CK-MB, aminotransferase (AST), ALT, and sodium levels. Nineteen participants wore actimeter armbands (SenseWear®) to gain information about body activity and exercise intensity [metabolic equivalent of task (MET)]. Sixteen participants wore mobile heart rate monitors to assess mean heart rate during the race. Serum parameter alterations over the course of the race were analyzed with mixed-effects ANOVA and additional t-tests. All serum parameters were analyzed for correlation concerning different MET levels, speed, age, BMI, baseline NT-pro-BNP, mean heart rate during the race, and sex with linear regression analysis. Results We found significant elevations for muscle and cardiac stress markers (CRP, CK, CK-MB, AST, ALT, cortisol, and NT-pro-BNP) as well as decreasing markers of lipid metabolism (cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL). Although the intensity level demanded from our participants was low compared with other studies on (ultra-) marathons, the alteration of tested parameters was similar to those of high-intensity exercise, e.g., NT-pro-BNP showed a fourfold increase (p < 0.01) and LDL decreased by 20% (p = 0.05). Besides the duration of exercise, age, BMI, training status, and sex are relevant parameters that influence the elevation of stress factors. Notably, our data indicate that NT-pro-BNP might be a marker for cardiovascular fitness also in healthy adults. Conclusion This low-intensity long-endurance walk evoked a strong systemic reaction and large cell stress and shifted to a favorable lipid profile, comparable to higher intensity events. Despite increasing cardiac stress parameters, there were no indications of cardiac cell damage. Remarkably, the duration seems to have a greater influence on stress markers and metabolism than intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Jörres
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Physiology, Center for Space Medicine and Extreme Environments, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hanns-Christian Gunga
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Physiology, Center for Space Medicine and Extreme Environments, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mathias Steinach
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Physiology, Center for Space Medicine and Extreme Environments, Berlin, Germany
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Self-Selected Pacing During a World Record Attempt in 40 Ironman-Distance Triathlons in 40 Days. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17072390. [PMID: 32244582 PMCID: PMC7177248 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17072390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The present case study analyzed performance, pacing, and potential predictors in a self-paced world record attempt of a professional triathlete to finish 40 Ironman-distance triathlons within 40 days. Split times (i.e., swimming, cycling, running) and overall times, body weight, daily highest temperature, wind speed, energy expenditure, mean heart rate, and sleeping time were recorded. Non-linear regressions were applied to investigate changes in split and overall times across days. Multivariate regression analyses were performed to test which variables showed the greatest influence on the dependent variables cycling, running and overall time. The athlete completed the 40×Ironman distances in a total time of 444:22 h:min. He spent 50:26 h:min in swimming, 245:37 h:min in cycling, 137:17 h:min in running and 11:02 h:min in transition times. Swimming and cycling times became slower across days, whereas running times got faster until the 20th day and, thereafter, became slower until the 40th day. Overall times got slower until the 15th day, became faster to 31st, and started then to get slower until the end. Wind speed, previous day’s race time and average heart race during cycling were significant independent variables influencing cycling time. Body weight and average heart rate during running were significant independent variables influencing running performance. Cycling performance, running performance, and body weight were significant independent variables influencing overall time. In summary, running time was influenced by body weight, cycling by wind speed, and overall time by both running and cycling performances.
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Pacing and Changes in Body Composition in 48 h Ultra-Endurance Running-A Case Study. Sports (Basel) 2018; 6:sports6040136. [PMID: 30388759 PMCID: PMC6315888 DOI: 10.3390/sports6040136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pacing has been investigated in elite and master runners competing in marathon and ultra-marathon races up to 100 km and 100 miles, but not in longer ultra-marathons. In this case study, a 54-year-old master ultra-marathoner—intending to achieve as many kilometers as possible in a 48 h run—was examined. The changes in running speed during the race and selected anthropometric characteristics using bioelectrical impedance analysis (i.e., body mass and body water), during and after the race, were analyzed. The runner achieved a total distance of 230 km and running speed decreased non-linearly during the race. Body mass decreased, while percent body water increased, non-linearly, across the race. There was no statistically significant relationship between the decrease in body mass and the increase in percent body water. Considering the popularity of ultra-endurance running races, the findings of the present study offered valuable insight in the pacing and changes of body mass and body water during a 48 h run, and this information can be used by ultra-endurance runners and practitioners working with them.
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Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Wir berichten über einen übergewichtigen Läufer mittleren Alters, der sich gezielt auf einen 24-h-Lauf vorbereitet hat mit dem Ziel, 100 Meilen (160,93 km) zu laufen und den Abbau des viszeralen Fettes zu dokumentieren. Es zeigte sich, dass der Läufer in der Lage war, konstant mit einer Geschwindigkeit von fast 7 km/h durchzulaufen, dabei mehr als 164 km erzielte und 1 kg viszerales Fett verlor. Im Alltag werden umgerechnet rund vier Marathons benötigt, um 1 kg viszerales Fett zu verlieren.
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Baur DA, Bach CW, Hyder WJ, Ormsbee MJ. Fluid retention, muscle damage, and altered body composition at the Ultraman triathlon. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 116:447-58. [PMID: 26560107 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3291-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The primary purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of participation in a 3-day multistage ultraendurance triathlon (stage 1 = 10 km swim, 144.8 km bike; stage 2 = 275.4 km bike; stage 3 = 84.4 km run) on body mass and composition, hydration status, hormones, muscle damage, and blood glucose. METHODS Eighteen triathletes (mean ± SD; age 41 ± 7.5 years; height 175 ± 9 cm; weight 73.5 ± 9.8 kg; male n = 14, female n = 4) were assessed before and after each stage of the race. Body mass and composition were measured via bioelectrical impedance, hydration status via urine specific gravity, hormones and muscle damage via venous blood draw, and blood glucose via fingerstick. RESULTS Following the race, significant changes included reductions in body mass (qualified effect size: trivial), fat mass (moderate), and percent body fat (small); increases in percent total body water (moderate) and urine specific gravity (large); and unchanged absolute total body water and fat-free mass. There were also extremely large increases in creatine kinase, C-reactive protein, aldosterone and cortisol combined with reductions in testosterone (small) and the testosterone:cortisol ratio (moderate). There were associations between post-race aldosterone and total body water (r = -0.504) and changes in cortisol and fat-free mass (r = -0.536). Finally, blood glucose increased in a stepwise manner prior to each stage. CONCLUSIONS Participation in Ultraman Florida leads to fluid retention and dramatic alterations in body composition, muscle health, hormones, and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Baur
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Christopher W Bach
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - William J Hyder
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael J Ormsbee
- Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences, Institute of Sports Sciences and Medicine, Florida State University, 1104 Spirit Way, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA. .,Discipline of Biokinetics, Exercise and Leisure Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
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Knechtle B, Zingg MA, Rosemann T, Rüst CA. The aspect of experience in ultra-triathlon races. SPRINGERPLUS 2015; 4:278. [PMID: 26101730 PMCID: PMC4471069 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-015-1050-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Previous experience seems to be an important predictor for endurance and ultra-endurance performance. The present study investigated whether the number of previously completed races and/or the personal best times in shorter races is more predictive for performance in longer non-stop ultra-triathlons such as a Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. All female and male ultra-triathletes who had finished between 1985 and 2014 at least one Double Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 7.6 km swimming, 360 km cycling and 84.4 km running), one Triple Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling and 126.6 km running), one Quintuple Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 19 km swimming, 900 km cycling and 221 km running) and one Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 38 km swimming, 1,800 km cycling and 422 km running) were identified and their best race times for each distance were recorded. Multiple regression analysis (stepwise, forward selection, p of F for inclusion <0.05, p of F for exclusion >0.1, listwise deletion) was used to determine all variables correlating to overall race time and performance in split disciplines for both Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. The number of finished shorter races (i.e. Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon) was not associated with the number of finished longer races (i.e. Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon) whereas both split and overall race times correlated to split and overall race times of the longer races with the exception of the swimming split times in Double Iron ultra-triathlon showing no correlation with swimming split times in both Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. In summary, previous experience seemed of importance in performance for longer ultra-triathlon races (i.e. Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon) where the personal best times of shorter races (i.e. Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon) were important, but not the number of previously finished races. For athletes and coaches, fast race times in shorter ultra-triathlon races (i.e. Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon) are more important than a large of number finished races in order to achieve a fast race time in a longer ultra-triathlon (i.e. Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon).
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland ; Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Knechtle B, Zingg MA, Rosemann T, Stiefel M, Rüst CA. What predicts performance in ultra-triathlon races? - a comparison between Ironman distance triathlon and ultra-triathlon. Open Access J Sports Med 2015; 6:149-59. [PMID: 26056498 PMCID: PMC4445872 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s79273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective This narrative review summarizes recent intentions to find potential predictor variables for ultra-triathlon race performance (ie, triathlon races longer than the Ironman distance covering 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling, and 42.195 km running). Results from studies on ultra-triathletes were compared to results on studies on Ironman triathletes. Methods A literature search was performed in PubMed using the terms “ultra”, “triathlon”, and “performance” for the aspects of “ultra-triathlon”, and “Ironman”, “triathlon”, and “performance” for the aspects of “Ironman triathlon”. All resulting papers were searched for related citations. Results for ultra-triathlons were compared to results for Ironman-distance triathlons to find potential differences. Results Athletes competing in Ironman and ultra-triathlon differed in anthropometric and training characteristics, where both Ironmen and ultra-triathletes profited from low body fat, but ultra-triathletes relied more on training volume, whereas speed during training was related to Ironman race time. The most important predictive variables for a fast race time in an ultra-triathlon from Double Iron (ie, 7.6 km swimming, 360 km cycling, and 84.4 km running) and longer were male sex, low body fat, age of 35–40 years, extensive previous experience, a fast time in cycling and running but not in swimming, and origins in Central Europe. Conclusion Any athlete intending to compete in an ultra-triathlon should be aware that low body fat and high training volumes are highly predictive for overall race time. Little is known about the physiological characteristics of these athletes and about female ultra-triathletes. Future studies need to investigate anthropometric and training characteristics of female ultra-triathletes and what motivates women to compete in these races. Future studies need to correlate physiological characteristics such as maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) with ultra-triathlon race performance in order to investigate whether these characteristics are also predictive for ultra-triathlon race performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael Stiefel
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Chlíbková D, Knechtle B, Rosemann T, Žákovská A, Tomášková I, Shortall M, Tomášková I. Changes in foot volume, body composition, and hydration status in male and female 24-hour ultra-mountain bikers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014; 11:12. [PMID: 24661412 PMCID: PMC3994394 DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The effects of running and cycling on changes in hydration status and body composition during a 24-hour race have been described previously, but data for 24-hour ultra-mountain bikers are missing. The present study investigated changes in foot volume, body composition, and hydration status in male and female 24-hour ultra-mountain bikers. METHODS We compared in 49 (37 men and 12 women) 24-hour ultra-mountain bikers (ultra-MTBers) changes (Δ) in body mass (BM). Fat mass (FM), percent body fat (%BF) and skeletal muscle mass (SM) were estimated using anthropometric methods. Changes in total body water (TBW), extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF) were determined using bioelectrical impedance and changes in foot volume using plethysmography. Haematocrit, plasma [Na+], plasma urea, plasma osmolality, urine urea, urine specific gravity and urine osmolality were measured in a subgroup of 25 ultra-MTBers (16 men and 9 women). RESULTS In male 24-hour ultra-MTBers, BM (P < 0.001), FM (P < 0.001), %BF (P < 0.001) and ECF (P < 0.05) decreased whereas SM and TBW did not change (P > 0.05). A significant correlation was found between post-race BM and post-race FM (r = 0.63, P < 0.001). In female ultra-MTBers, BM (P < 0.05), %BF (P < 0.05) and FM (P < 0.001) decreased, whereas SM, ECF and TBW remained stable (P > 0.05). Absolute ranking in the race was related to Δ%BM (P < 0.001) and Δ%FM in men (P < 0.001) and to Δ%BM (P < 0.05) in women. In male ultra-MTBers, increased post-race plasma urea (P < 0.001) was negatively related to absolute ranking in the race, Δ%BM, post-race FM and Δ%ECF (P < 0.05). Foot volume remained stable in both sexes (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Male and female 24-hour ultra-MTBers experienced a significant loss in BM and FM, whereas SM remained stable. Body weight changes and increases in plasma urea do not reflect a change in body hydration status. No oedema of the lower limbs occurred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Chlíbková
- Centre of Sports Activities, Brno University of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practise and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practise and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alena Žákovská
- Institute of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Tomášková
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | - Iva Tomášková
- SurGal clinic s.r.o., Center for Sports Medicine, Brno, Czech Republic
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Papadopoulou SK, Gouvianaki A, Grammatikopoulou MG, Maraki Z, Pagkalos IG, Malliaropoulos N, Hassapidou MN, Maffulli N. Body Composition and Dietary Intake of Elite Cross-country Skiers Members of the Greek National Team. Asian J Sports Med 2012; 3:257-66. [PMID: 23342224 PMCID: PMC3525822 DOI: 10.5812/asjsm.34548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the anthropometric characteristics and dietary intake of the Greek national cross-country skiing team. METHODS Thirty-three athletes (10 females aged 20 ± 5 years; 23 males aged 20 ± 6 years old) participated in the study. All athletes were members of the Greek national ski team, and they had been selected to take part in the Winter Olympics, World Ski Championships, European Ski Championships or other international events, according to their performance. Body composition was estimated by bioelectrical impedance (BIA) and skinfold thickness. The athletes recorded their physical activity and dietary intake for 3 training days, and on a competition day. RESULTS The female skiers had 14.2±1.9% body fat, the men 11.0±1.5% body fat. Female athletes consumed a diet of 1988±319 Kcal during training days and 2011±330 Kcal during competition days. Male athletes consumed 2255±790 Kcal and 2125±639 Kcal respectively. These values are below those recommended for highly active people. During the training period, carbohydrate, fat and protein contributed to 44.5±7.1%, 39.2±5.3% and 16.1±3.7% of the total energy intake (EI) respectively for the males, and to 52.8±5.6%, 33.0±3.7% and 14.3±2.5% of the EI of the women. Between training and competition days, men demonstrated an increased carbohydrate and reduced fat consumption when competing (P<0.001 for both). Women, on the other hand, consumed more carbohydrate and less protein during competition days (P<0.05 for both). Protein intake was within the recommended range for both males and females, but fat exceeded the recommended values and was consumed at the expense of carbohydrate. Vitamins B(12), D, E and K, biotin, folate, Ca, Mg, K, I were inadequately consumed (below the RDA) by both women and men, while the women also exhibited inadequate intakes of iron and the men of manganese. CONCLUSIONS The inadequate energy and nutrient intake in the Greek national cross-country ski team could put the athletes at risk of nutritional deficiencies, and possibly compromise their athletic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sousana K. Papadopoulou
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Alexander Technological Educational Institute, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Anna Gouvianaki
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Alexander Technological Educational Institute, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria G. Grammatikopoulou
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Alexander Technological Educational Institute, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Zoi Maraki
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Alexander Technological Educational Institute, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ioannis G. Pagkalos
- Department of Mathematical, Physical and Computational Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Malliaropoulos
- National Track & Field Centre, Sports Injury Clinic, Sports Medicine Clinic of S.E.G.A.S., Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria N. Hassapidou
- Department of Nutrition & Dietetics, Alexander Technological Educational Institute, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Nicola Maffulli
- Centre of Sports and Exercise Medicine, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Mile End Hospital, London, UK
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Knechtle B, Baumgartner S, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T, Bescós R. Changes in single skinfold thickness in 100 km ultramarathoners. Open Access J Sports Med 2012; 3:147-57. [PMID: 24198597 PMCID: PMC3781909 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s37035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Changes in single skinfold thickness and body fat have been investigated in ultraswimmers and ultracyclists, but not in ultrarunners. The present study investigated the changes in single skinfold thickness during a 100 km ultramarathon. Methods Firstly, we investigated associations between prerace preparation and prerace body composition and, secondly, changes in single skinfold thickness during a 100 km ultramarathon in 219 male ultramarathoners. Changes in fat mass and skeletal muscle were estimated using anthropometric methods. Results Kilometers run weekly prerace and running speed during training were negatively associated with all skinfold thicknesses (P < 0.05) except for the front thigh skinfold. During the race, skinfold thickness at the pectoral (−0.1%), suprailiac (−1.8%), and calf (−0.8%) sites decreased (P < 0.05). The subjects lost 1.9 ± 1.4 kg of body mass (P < 0.001), 0.7 ± 1.0 kg of estimated skeletal muscle mass (P < 0.001), and 0.2 ± 1.3 kg of estimated fat mass (P < 0.05). The decrease in body mass was positively related to the decrease in both estimated skeletal muscle mass (r = 0.21, P = 0.0017) and estimated fat mass (r = 0.41, P < 0.0001). Conclusion Firstly, prerace fat mass and prerace skinfold thickness were associated with both volume and speed in running training. Secondly, during the ultramarathon, skinfold thickness decreased at the pectoral, suprailiac, and calf sites, but not at the thigh site. Percent decreases in skinfold thickness for ultrarunners was lower than the percent decreases in skinfold thickness reported for ultraswimmers and ultracyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich; ; Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland
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Rüst CA, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T, Lepers R. Participation and Performance Trends in Triple Iron Ultra-triathlon - a Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Data Analysis. Asian J Sports Med 2012; 3:145-52. [PMID: 23012633 PMCID: PMC3445641 DOI: 10.5812/asjsm.34605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2012] [Accepted: 05/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The aims of the present study were to investigate (i) the changes in participation and performance and (ii) the gender difference in Triple Iron ultra-triathlon (11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling and 126.6 km running) across years from 1988 to 2011. Methods For the cross-sectional data analysis, the association between with overall race times and split times was investigated using simple linear regression analyses and analysis of variance. For the longitudinal data analysis, the changes in race times for the five men and women with the highest number of participations were analysed using simple linear regression analyses. Results During the studied period, the number of finishers were 824 (71.4%) for men and 80 (78.4%) for women. Participation increased for men (r2=0.27, P<0.01) while it remained stable for women (8%). Total race times were 2,146 ± 127.3 min for men and 2,615 ± 327.2 min for women (P<0.001). Total race time decreased for men (r2=0.17; P=0.043), while it increased for women (r2=0.49; P=0.001) across years. The gender difference in overall race time for winners increased from 10% in 1992 to 42% in 2011 (r2=0.63; P<0.001). The longitudinal analysis of the five women and five men with the highest number of participations showed that performance decreased in one female (r2=0.45; P=0.01). The four other women as well as all five men showed no change in overall race times across years. Conclusions Participation increased and performance improved for male Triple Iron ultra-triathletes while participation remained unchanged and performance decreased for females between 1988 and 2011. The reasons for the increase of the gap between female and male Triple Iron ultra-triathletes need further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Alexander Rüst
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Corresponding Author:Address: Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland. E-mail:
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Romuald Lepers
- INSERM U1093, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France
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Weitkunat T, Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T. Body composition and hydration status changes in male and female open-water swimmers during an ultra-endurance event. J Sports Sci 2012; 30:1003-13. [PMID: 22554315 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2012.682083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Body mass changes during ultra-endurance performances have been described for running, cycling and for swimming in a heated pool. The present field study of 20 male and 11 female open-water swimmers investigated the changes in body composition and hydration status during an ultra-endurance event. Body mass, both estimated fat mass and skeletal muscle mass, haematocrit, plasma sodium concentration ([Na+]) and urine specific gravity were determined. Energy intake, energy expenditure and fluid intake were estimated. Males experienced significant reductions in body mass (-0.5 %) and skeletal muscle mass (-1.1 %) (P < 0.05) during the race compared to females who showed no significant changes with regard to these variables (P > 0.05). Changes in percent body fat, fat mass, and fat-free mass were heterogeneous and did not reach statistical significance (P > 0.05) between gender groups. Fluid intake relative to plasma volume was higher in females than in males during the ultra-endurance event. Compared to males, females' average increase in haematocrit was 3.3 percentage points (pp) higher, urine specific gravity decrease 0.1 pp smaller, and plasma [Na+] 1.3 pp higher. The observed patterns of fluid intake, changes in plasma volume, urine specific gravity, and plasma [Na+] suggest that, particularly in females, a combination of fluid shift from blood vessels to interstitial tissue, facilitated by skeletal muscle damage, as well as exercise-associated hyponatremia had occurred. To summarise, changes in body composition and hydration status are different in male compared to female open-water ultra-endurance swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Weitkunat
- Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe physiologic alterations in runners competing in a 160-km endurance event and to evaluate the utility of weight and blood pressure measurements in the assessment of runner performance. DESIGN Prospective cohort study. SETTING One hundred sixty-km ultramarathon. PARTICIPANTS Ninety-one of the 101 participants in the 2010 Tahoe Rim 100 Mile Endurance Run. ASSESSMENT OF RISK FACTORS Brachial blood pressure, heart rate, and weight were assessed before competition, at 80 km, and at 160 km. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Alterations in brachial blood pressure, heart rate, and weight were assessed in finishers. Weight loss, brachial blood pressure, pulse pressure, and heart rate at 80 km were assessed in all participants for their ability to predict failure to finish the race. RESULTS Participants who finished 160 km (57%) experienced their fastest heart rates (P < 0.05), lowest systolic pressures (P < 0.05), highest diastolic pressures (P < 0.05), narrowest pulse pressures (P < 0.05), and lowest weights (P < 0.05) at 80 km. High rates of finishing were seen in those who lost >5% of their prerace weight (87%). Categorical weight loss (<3%, 3%-5%, and >5%) was not associated with the ability to finish (P > 0.05) or finishing time (P > 0.05), whereas the presence of a narrow pulse pressure was associated with a high likelihood (likelihood ratio = 9.84; P = 0.002) of failure to finish. CONCLUSIONS Greater intracompetition weight loss is not associated with impaired performance but rather may be an aspect of superior performance. Narrow pulse pressure was associated with a high likelihood of failure to finish.
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Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T. A comparison of anthropometric and training characteristics of Ironman triathletes and Triple Iron ultra-triathletes. J Sports Sci 2011; 29:1373-80. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2011.587442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T, Senn O. Personal best time, not anthropometry or training volume, is associated with total race time in a triple iron triathlon. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25:1142-50. [PMID: 20651605 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181d09f0f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate in 81 male recreational ultratriathletes (64 finishers and 17 nonfinishers) the relationship of anthropometry, prerace experience, and training with race outcome in a Triple Iron triathlon, using bi and multivariate analyses. In the bivariate analysis, the sum of 8 skinfolds (r = 0.38) and the sum of upper body skinfolds (r = 0.37) were positively related to total race time. None of the anthropometric variables was related to the swim or bike split. Circumference of upper arm (r = 0.42), percent body fat (r = 0.43), the sum of 8 skinfolds (r = 0.47), and the sum of upper body skinfolds (r = 0.45) were positively associated with the time in the run split. None of the training variables was related to total race time or split times. Personal best time in an Ironman triathlon (r = 0.59) and a Triple Iron triathlon (r = 0.82) were positively and highly significantly related to total race time. When all significant variables after bivariate analysis were included in a regression model, personal best time in a Triple Iron triathlon (p < 0.0001) remained the single predictor variable. For practical considerations, athletes with a background as an ultrarunner might have an advantage in successfully finishing a Triple Iron triathlon. However, ultrarunners should also have enough prerace experience in competing in Ironman and Triple Iron triathlons to successfully finish such a race.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St Gallen, St Gallen, Switzerland.
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Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rüst CA, Rosemann T. Leg skinfold thicknesses and race performance in male 24-hour ultra-marathoners. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) 2011; 24:110-4. [PMID: 21566757 DOI: 10.1080/08998280.2011.11928696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The association of skinfold thicknesses with race performance has been investigated in runners competing over distances of ≤50 km. This study investigated a potential relation between skinfold thicknesses and race performance in male ultra-marathoners completing >50 km in 24 hours. Variables of anthropometry, training, and previous performance were related to race performance in 63 male ultra-marathoners aged 46.9 (standard deviation [SD] 10.3) years, standing 1.78 (SD 0.07) m in height, and weighing 73.3 (SD 7.6) kg. The runners clocked 146.1 (SD 43.1) km during the 24 hours. In the bivariate analysis, several variables were associated with race performance: body mass (r = -0.25); skinfold thickness at axilla (r = -0.37), subscapula (r = -0.28), abdomen (r = -0.31), and suprailiaca (r = -0.30); the sum of skinfold thicknesses (r = -0.32); percentage body fat (r = -0.32); weekly kilometers run (r = 0.31); personal best time in a marathon (r = -0.58); personal best time in a 100-km ultra-run (r = -0.31); and personal best performance in a 24-hour run (r = 0.46). In the multivariate analysis, no anthropometric or training variable was related to race performance. In conclusion, in contrast to runners up to distances of 50 km, skinfold thicknesses of the lower limbs were not related to race performance in 24-hour ultra-marathoners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland (B. Knechtle, P. Knechtle) and Institute of General Practice and for Health Services Research, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland (B. Knechtle, C.A. Rüst, T. Rosemann)
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Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Barandun U, Rosemann T. Anthropometric and training variables related to half-marathon running performance in recreational female runners. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2011; 39:158-66. [PMID: 21673497 DOI: 10.3810/psm.2011.05.1907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between skin-fold thickness and running has been investigated in distances ranging from 100 m to the marathon distance (42.195 km), with the exclusion of the half-marathon distance (21.0975 km). We investigated the association between anthropometric variables, prerace experience, and training variables with race time in 42 recreational, nonprofessional, female half-marathon runners using bi- and multivariate analysis. Body weight (r, 0.60); body mass index (r, 0.48); body fat percentage (r, 0.56); pectoral (r, 0.61), mid-axilla (r, 0.69), triceps (r, 0.49), subscapular (r, 0.61), abdominal (r, 0.59), suprailiac (r, 0.55), and medial calf (r, 0.53) skin-fold thickness; mean speed of the training sessions (r, -0.68); and personal best time in a half-marathon (r, 0.69) correlated with race time after bivariate analysis. Body weight (P = 0.0054), pectoral skin-fold thickness (P = 0.0068), and mean speed of the training sessions (P = 0.0041) remained significant after multivariate analysis. Mean running speed during training was related to mid-axilla (r, -0.31), subscapular (r, -0.38), abdominal (r, -0.44), and suprailiac (r, -0.41) skin-fold thickness, the sum of 8 skin-fold thicknesses (r, -0.36); and percent body fat (r, -0.31). It was determined that variables of both anthropometry and training were related to half-marathon race time, and that skin-fold thicknesses were associated with running speed during training. For practical applications, high running speed during training (as opposed to extensive training) may both reduce upper-body skin-fold thicknesses and improve race performance in recreational female half-marathon runners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Facharzt FMH für Allgemeinmedizin, Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen, Switzerland.
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Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. Similarity of anthropometric measures for male ultra-triathletes and ultra-runners. Percept Mot Skills 2011; 111:805-18. [PMID: 21319620 DOI: 10.2466/05.25.pms.111.6.805-818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Previous research concluded that Triple Iron ultra-triathletes were close to runners in anthropometry. We assessed similarities in anthropometry between 64 Triple Iron triathletes who competed over 11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling, and 126 km running versus 95 100-km ultra-marathoners. Variables of anthropometry such as body mass, body height, length and circumferences of limbs, skin-folds and body fat, and training such as volume and speed were compared between ultra-triathletes and ultra-runners. The Triple Iron triathletes completed their race distance within 2811 min. (SD=379) and the 100-km ultra-marathoners within 691 min. (SD=117). Triathletes were younger, had higher body mass, shorter legs, higher circumference of upper arm and thigh, lower sum of skin-folds, and lower percent body fat compared to runners. Weekly training volume was higher for triathletes, and weekly hours in running and weekly kilometres in running were higher for runners. In the Triple Iron ultra-triathletes, the sum of eight skin-folds correlated to total race time. The circumference of upper arm, the sum of eight skin-folds, and percent body fat correlated with time in the running section .42, .47, and .43, respectively. In the 100-km ultra-marathoners, the sum of eight skin-folds, the skin-fold thickness of thigh, percent body fat, weekly running hours, and weekly running kilometres correlated with race time .55, .40, .56, -.50, and -.51, respectively. However, in the triathletes, none of these training variables was significantly correlated with race time. In the ultra-marathoners, the sum of eight skin-folds, the skin-fold thickness of thigh, percent body fat, weekly running kilometres, and speed in running during training were related to race time (correlations of .55, .40, -.28, and -.51, respectively). Overall, the ultra-triathletes were not similar to ultra-runners in their anthropometric measures and training variables.
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Knechtle B, Knechtle P, Rosemann T, Oliver S. ATriple Iron triathlon leads to a decrease in total body mass but not to dehydration. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2010; 81:319-327. [PMID: 20949852 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2010.10599680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A loss in total body mass during an ultraendurance performance is usually attributed to dehydration. We identified the changes in total body mass, fat mass, skeletal muscle mass, and selected markers of hydration status in 31 male nonprofessional ultratriathletes participating in a Triple Iron triathlon involving 11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling and 126.6 km running. Measurements were taken prior to starting the race and after arrival at the finish line. Total body mass decreased by 1.66 kg (SD = 1.92; -5.3 kg to +1.2 kg; p < .001), skeletal muscle mass by 1.00 kg (SD = 0.90; -2.54 kg to +2.07 kg; p < .001), and fat mass by 0.58 kg (SD = 0.78; -1.74 kg to +0.87 kg; p < .001). The decrease in total body mass was associated with the decrease in skeletal muscle mass (r = .44; p < .05) and fat mass (r = .51; p < .05). Total body water and urinary specific gravity did not significantly change. Plasma urea increased significantly (p < .001); the decrease in skeletal muscle mass and the increase in plasma urea were associated (r = .39; p < .05). We conclude that completing a Triple Iron triathlon leads to decreased total body mass due to reduced fat mass and skeletal muscle mass but not to dehydration. The association of decrease in skeletal muscle mass and increased plasma urea suggests a loss in skeletal muscle mass.
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Do ultra-runners in a 24-h run really dehydrate? Ir J Med Sci 2010; 180:129-34. [DOI: 10.1007/s11845-010-0500-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2009] [Accepted: 05/04/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Knechtle B, Wirth A, Baumann B, Knechtle P, Kohler G, Rosemann T, Senn O. An Ironman Triathlon Does Not Lead to a Change in Body Mass in Female Triathletes. Res Sports Med 2010; 18:115-26. [DOI: 10.1080/15438621003627059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- a Gesundheitszentrum St. Gallen , St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Wirth
- b Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich , Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Götz Kohler
- c Radio-Oncology , University Hospital Basel , Basel, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- b Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich , Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Oliver Senn
- b Institute of General Practice and Health Services Research, University of Zurich , Zurich, Switzerland
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de Milander L, Stein DJ, Collins M. The interleukin-6, serotonin transporter, and monoamine oxidase A genes and endurance performance during the South African Ironman Triathlon. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2009; 34:858-65. [PMID: 19935847 DOI: 10.1139/h09-083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have identified an association of genetic variants believed to alter physiological and biochemical processes locally within the skeletal muscle and therefore performance in the Ironman triathlon. There is growing evidence that the serotonergic system and circulating interleukin (IL)-6 levels are also involved in mediating endurance capacity. Investigators have demonstrated that recombinant human IL-6 administration and serotonergic neurotransmission manipulation, with 5-hydroxytryptamine transporter (5-HTT) and monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) inhibitors, prior to exercise, can alter running performance, consistent with a central governor hypothesis. The aim of this study was to investigate possible associations of functional polymorphisms within the IL-6, 5-HTT, and MAO-A genes with endurance performance of Ironman triathletes. Four hundred sixty-eight male Caucasian triathletes who completed the 2000 and (or) 2001 South African Ironman Triathlon and 200 healthy Caucasian male controls were genotyped for the -174 IL-6 G/C, 5-HTT 40 base pair (bp) insertion-deletion and 30 bp variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) MAO-A gene polymorphisms. There were no significant differences in the relative genotype distributions within the IL-6 (p = 0.636), 5-HTT (p = 0.659), and MOA-A (p = 0.227) polymorphisms when the fastest-fnishing, middle-finishing, and slowest-finishing triathletes, as well as the control groups, were compared. There were no direct associations between the IL-6 -174 G/C, 5-HTT 44 bp insertion-deletion, and MAO-A 30 bp VNTR gene polymorphisms and endurance performance in the 2000 and (or) 2001 South African Ironman Triathlons. The neurogenetic basis of the central governor requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesl de Milander
- UCT/MRC Research Unit for Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the change in body composition and hydration status in cyclists in a mountain bike ultra-marathon. DESIGN Prospective observational field study. SETTING "Swiss Bike Masters" 2008 over 120 km with a total climb of 5000 m in altitude. PARTICIPANTS Thirty-seven male mountain bikers. INTERVENTIONS None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Prerace and postrace, body mass, percent body fat, skeletal muscle mass, and selected hematologic and urinary parameters were measured to quantify changes in body mass and hydration status. Athletes reported their fluid intake during the race. RESULTS The athletes lost 1.4 kg in body mass (P < 0.001), equal to 1.9% body mass. Fat mass remained stable and skeletal muscle mass decreased by 0.4 kg (P < 0.05). Prerace fat mass was correlated to total race time (r = 0.37, P < 0.05). The cyclists drank 6.5 (1.8) L of fluids during the race corresponding to 0.7 (0.2) L per hour. A significant inverse relationship was seen between change in body mass and race time when controlled for change in skeletal mass and fluid intake during the race (P > 0.05). Plasma sodium decreased by 0.7% (P < 0.05), plasma volume increased by 1.4%, and plasma urea increased by 40% (P < 0.05). Urinary-specific gravity increased by 0.4% (P < 0.05). The decrease in skeletal muscle mass was associated with the increase in plasma urea (r = -0.34; P < 0.05). Fluid intake was associated with the change in urinary-specific gravity (r = -0.45; P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS We conclude that these mountain bike ultra-marathoners suffered a significant decrease in body mass and skeletal muscle mass but no dehydration.
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Knechtle B, Wirth A, Knechtle P, Rosemann T. Increase of total body water with decrease of body mass while running 100 km nonstop--formation of edema? RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2009; 80:593-603. [PMID: 19791646 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2009.10599598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We investigated whether ultraendurance runners in a 100-km run suffer a decrease of body mass and whether this loss consists of fat mass, skeletal muscle mass, or total body water. Male ultrarunners were measured pre- and postrace to determine body mass, fat mass, and skeletal muscle mass by using the anthropometric method. In addition, bioelectrical impedance analysis was used to determine total body water, and urinary (urinary specific gravity) and hematological parameters (hematocrit and plasma sodium) were measured in order to determine hydration status. Body mass decreased by 1.6 kg (p < .01), fat mass by 0.4 kg (p < .01), and skeletal muscle mass by 0.7 kg (p < .01), whereas total body water increased by 0.8 L (p < .05). Hematocrit and plasma sodium decreased significantly (p < .01), whereas plasma urea and urinary specific gravity (USG) increased significantly (p < .01). The decrease of 2.2% body mass and a USG of 1.020 refer to a minimal dehydration. Our athletes seem to have been relatively overhydrated (increase in total body water and plasma sodium) and dehydrated (decrease in body mass and increase in USG) during the race, as evidenced by the increased total body water and the fact that plasma sodium and hematocrit were lower postrace than prerace. The change of body mass was associated with the change of total body water (p < .05), and we presume the development of.
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