Time for change: a roadmap to guide the implementation of the World Anti-Doping Code 2015

The association between subjective anti-doping knowledge and objective knowledge among Japanese university athletes: a cross-sectional study

Introduction

This study aimed to assess the association between subjective anti-doping knowledge (subjective ADK) and objective anti-doping knowledge (objective ADK) among Japanese university athletes, framed within the context of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB).

Methods

Eligible participants were 486 university athletes [320 men (65.8%), 166 women; mean age of 18.9 ± 1.0 years]. The participants categorized themselves in terms of the quality of their anti-doping knowledge. This assessment resulted in an independent variable coded as "(1) substantial lack of adequate knowledge," "(2) some lack of adequate knowledge," "(3) fair amount of knowledge" or "(4) good amount of knowledge." Objective ADK was assessed using the Athlete Learning Program about Health and Anti-Doping (ALPHA) test, a set of questions derived from the ALPHA-a former World Anti-Doping Agency e-learning program. The test comprises 12 questions (four choices each; passing index: ≧10 points or 80% correct answer rate). ANCOVA was conducted using subjective ADK as an independent variable and ALPHA scores as a dependent variable, adjusting for confounding factors (anti-doping experience).

Results

The ALPHA corrected answer rate across subjective ADK levels for the group were 73.10% for "(1) substantial lack of adequate knowledge," 71.97% for "(2) some lack of adequate knowledge," 75.18% for "(3) fair amount of knowledge" and 72.86% for "(4) good amount of knowledge." Comparison between different levels of subjective ADK revealed no significant differences in ALPHA score considering the main effects or any of their interactions.

Discussion

The present results revealed that Japanese university athletes' subjective ADK did not match their objective ADK. In the context of the TPB, there may be limitations in the perceived behavioral control in anti-doping knowledge. Even if athletes view doping as a wrongful act and have formed attitudes and subjective norms to comply with the rules, the results suggest that errors may occur in the composition of behavioral intentions due to a lack of knowledge. This could lead to the possibility of facing the risk of unintentional anti-doping rule violations. It highlights the need for targeted educational interventions to align subjective ADK of athletes with their objective ADK.

Relationship between the level of willingness to learn about anti-doping and objective knowledge among Japanese university athletes: A cross-sectional study

Previous studies have indicated that athletes' anti-doping knowledge is inadequate. Athletes' willingness to learn about anti-doping (willingness to learn) may influence their anti-doping knowledge, but the actual situation is unclear. This study aimed to determine the relationship between athletes' willingness to learn about anti-doping and their objective measurement knowledge and explore directions for educational interventions. The eligible participants were 971 male and 802 female university athletes. We used the ALPHA test (12 questions/four choices; passing index: ≥10 points/80% correct answer rate) to assess objective anti-doping knowledge. The willingness to learn question was, “Would you like to learn more about anti-doping?” Responses were given on a 4-point scale ranging from 1: strongly disagree to 4: strongly agree. An ANCOVA was conducted with four levels of willingness to learn as the independent variable and ALPHA correct answer rate as the dependent variable, adjusting for confounding factors (years of athletic experience and anti-doping education experience). The percentage of athletes (%) and each ALPHA correct answer rate (%) by the level of willingness to learn was 1: strongly disagree, n = 1.64%, 61.78%; 2: somewhat disagree, n = 13.14%, 62.38%; 3: somewhat agree, n = 62.94%, 64.08%; 4: strongly agree, n = 22.28%, 67.11%. The ALPHA correct answer rates showed significant differences in the main effect by the level of willingness to learn [F_{(3, 1767)} = 2.873, p < 0.05, η² = 0.01], although the effect size was small, and multiple comparisons showed no significant differences between the levels. The results indicated that the ALPHA correct answer rate did not reach 80% even for the “strongly agree” level of willingness to learn, suggesting that information on anti-doping may be inadequate. The need to provide sufficient educational content to improve knowledge was evident.

Blockchain for Doping Control Applications in Sports: A Conceptual Approach

Doping is a well-known problem in competitive sports. Along the years, several cases have come to public, evidencing corrupt practices from within the sports environment. To guarantee fair play and prevent public health issues, anti-doping organizations and sports authorities are expected to cooperate in the fight against doping. To achieve this mission, doping-related data must be produced, stored, accessed, and shared in a secure, tamperproof, and privacy-preserving manner. This paper investigates the processes and tools established by the World Anti-Doping Agency for the global harmonization of doping control activities. From this investigation, it is possible to conclude that there is an inherent trust problem, in part due to a centralized data management paradigm and to the lack of fully digitalized processes. Therefore, this paper presents two main contributions: the concept of a multiorganizational decentralized data governance model and a blockchain-based design for one of the most sensitive data-sharing processes within the anti-doping ecosystem. Throughout this article, it is shown that the adoption of a permissioned blockchain can benefit the whole anti-doping community, creating more reliable processes for handling data, where privacy and security are enhanced.

The Effect of Methylphenidate and Aerobic Exercise on Renal Function of Male Rats

Introduction: Inadequate awareness and knowledge exists regarding the effects of stimulant drugs on renal health among athletes. The present study aimed to determine the effects of methylphenidate, as a stimulant drug, and aerobic exercise on renal function in rats. Materials and Methods: Eighty male rats were randomly divided into 8 groups (n=10 per group) including control (Co), aerobic exercise sham (AE Sh), drug sham (D Sh), aerobic exercise (AE), the effective dose of drug (ED, 10 mg/kg), 3 times of effective dose (TED, 30 mg/kg), aerobic exercise-effective dose (AE-ED), and aerobic exercise-three times of effective dose (AE-TED). The drug was orally administrated to the animals, and then they were placed on a rat treadmill after 30 minutes. The physical activity (25 m/min) was performed 30 minutes a day, 3 days a week for two months. Twenty-four hours after the last session of AE, blood samples were taken from the rats and serum creatinine (Cr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) were determined. Results: The results showed that serum Cr and BUN levels were not significantly different in the exercise group compared to the control groups (i.e., Co, AE Sham, and D Sham). However, serum BUN and Cr significantly increased in the AE-ED and AE-TED groups compared to the AE group (PCr=0.001 and PBUN=0.001). Conclusion: In general, significant increases in the serum BUN and Cr levels in rats received methylphenidate indicated decreased renal function in these animals.

Impact of anti-doping education and doping control experience on anti-doping knowledge in Japanese university athletes: a cross-sectional study

Background

This study was conducted to elucidate the anti-doping (AD) education, doping control experience, and AD knowledge according to the World Anti-doping Code (Code) of Japanese university athletes.

Methods

We collected data from 514 male athletes (M_age = 19.53 years, SD = 1.13) and 629 female athletes (M_age = 20.99 years, SD = 1.07). We asked them about their experience undergoing doping control and the AD education they had received. Then, we assessed their AD knowledge using the World Anti-Doping Agency’s Athlete Learning Program about Health and AD (ALPHA) test.

Results

The results showed that 2.54% of the participants had undergone doping control. Further, 30.10% received AD education at least once, and 20.82% received AD education more than once. When comparing the ALPHA scores of athletes with/without doping test experience, we observed no significant difference. However, the ALPHA scores of athletes with/without AD education were significantly different; specifically, athletes who received AD education more than once had significantly higher ALPHA scores than non-educated athletes.

Conclusion

These results revealed that doping control experience was not related to AD knowledge and that AD education was associated with AD knowledge, suggesting that athletes who receive AD education more than once have more accurate AD knowledge than less educated athletes on this topic. The importance of AD education in promoting understanding of AD according to the Code in sports is highlighted in this study.

Ethical Concerns in Sport: When the Will to Win Exceed the Spirit of Sport

Background: The need to advance and achieve success is deeply ingrained in human evolution. As a species, humans developed instincts that allowed them to survive and transmit their genes along generations. The will to win is an instinct that has been maintained in the species for millions of years. Sport is an activity as old as humans themselves and is subject to rules; Objective: The proposal of this work is to explore some of the most recurrent practices to achieve the athletes' goals, and the origins and historical use of methods or substances to improve performance and its regulation, as well as to review the impact of new technologies on achieving better results and to make a proposal of what actions should be takenin order to prevent bad practices; Methods: A narrative literature review of ethical sports issues and decision-making was performed in the English language; Results: Practically all behavior with regards to the theme of sports is regulated by ethical codes that must be followed by sportspersons, as well as by everyone involved in the athlete's healthcare and in the athlete's administrative, marketing, and business aspects. Notwithstanding this, winning and reaping glory implies a reward far greater than fame and fortune, which can lead to poor ethical practices in athletes, as well as in interested parties who detract from the intrinsic value of the spirit of sports. The will to win could exceed the limits of what is permitted in fair-play, like the use of prohibited methods or substances; Conclusions: In this work, we review some of the bioethical aspects ofsports. Additionally, recommendations are offered for good practices and to prevent falling into poor ethical behavior.

Antidoping programme and biological monitoring before and during the 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil

Background

The FIFA has implemented an important antidoping programme for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.

Aim

To perform the analyses before and during the World Cup with biological monitoring of blood and urine samples.

Methods

All qualified players from the 32 teams participating in the World Cup were tested out-of-competition. During the World Cup, 2–8 players per match were tested. Over 1000 samples were collected in total and analysed in the WADA accredited Laboratory of Lausanne.

Results

The quality of the analyses was at the required level as described in the WADA technical documents. The urinary steroid profiles of the players were stable and consistent with previously published papers on football players. During the competition, amphetamine was detected in a sample collected on a player who had a therapeutic use exemption for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The blood passport data showed no significant difference in haemoglobin values between out-of-competition and postmatch samples.

Conclusions

Logistical issues linked to biological samples collection, and the overseas shipment during the World Cup did not impair the quality of the analyses, especially when used as the biological passport of football players.

How the Iranian Football Coaches and Players Know About Doping?

Background:

Nowadays, doping is an intricate dilemma. Football is the nationally popular sport in Iran. On the other hand, doping is a serious health hazard sport faces today. Studies dealing with athletes’ knowledge, attitudes and behavior concerning doping in football are scarce.

Objectives:

Therefore, we aimed to investigate the knowledge and attitudes toward doping among the football coaches and players.

Patients and Methods:

In a cross sectional study, 375 participants (239 football players and 136 coaches) were studied. A specially made questionnaire was applied. In this study, football teams of different provinces of the country were selected by randomized clustered sampling and questionnaires were distributed among coaches and players.

Results:

Knowledge of football coaches and players in three categories of doping definitions, recognition of prohibited drugs and side effects of anabolic steroids was poor or moderate in 45.3%, 88.5% and 96.5%, respectively.

Conclusions:

Football players and coaches have poor knowledge about doping in Iran. Moreover, they believe in some inappropriate myths without any scientific or rational basis.It seems necessary to design a comprehensive educational program for all of the athletes and coaches in Iran.