Early and late complications after endoscopic sphincterotomy for biliary lithiasis with and without the gall bladder 'in situ'

Changes in the Management of Common Bile Duct Stones: 1980 to Date

OBJECTIVE

To compare the results of treating patients with common bile duct (CBD) stones by endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES), surgical exploration, or a combination of ES and surgical CBD exploration (the rendezvous technique).

METHODS

A narrative review of the literature.

SUMMARY OF DATA

Before 1990, 17 cohort studies indicated that ES cleared CBD stones in 92.0% of patients, with a mortality rate of 1.5%. Surgery removed CBD stones in 90.2% of patients, with a 2.1% mortality rate. A single randomized controlled trial in 1987 showed that ES removed CBD stones in 91% of 55 patients, with a 3.6% mortality rate and a 27% complication rate, whereas surgical CBD exploration removed CBD stones in 92%, with a 1.8% mortality rate and a 22% complication rate. Since 1991, 26 randomized controlled trials have shown that laparoscopic-ES rendezvous is as effective as ES alone and laparoscopic surgery alone but is associated with fewer complications, a reduced need for additional procedures, and a shorter hospital stay.

CONCLUSIONS

A laparoscopic-ES rendezvous appears to be the optimal approach to the treatment of CBD stones in younger and fit patients. The choice between ES alone and laparoscopic-ES rendezvous in older or high-risk patients remains uncertain.

Prophylactic cholecystectomy offers best outcomes following ERCP clearance of common bile duct stones: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Symptomatic calculus biliary disease is common with associated morbidity and occasional mortality, further confounded when there is concomitant common bile duct (CBD) stones. Choledocholithiasis and clearance of the duct reduces recurrent cholangitis, but the question is whether after clearance of the CBD if there is a need to perform a cholecystectomy. This meta-analysis evaluated outcomes in patients undergoing ERCP with or without sphincterotomy to determine if cholecystectomy post-ERCP clearance offers optimal outcomes over a wait-and-see approach.

METHODS

A Prospero registered meta-analysis of the literature using PRISMA guidelines incorporating articles related to ERCP, choledocholithiasis, cholangitis and cholecystectomy was undertaken for papers published between 1st January 1991 and 31st May 2021. Existing research that demonstrates outcomes of ERCP with no cholecystectomy versus ERCP and cholecystectomy was reviewed to determine the related key events, complications and mortality of leaving the gallbladder in situ and removing it. Odds ratios (OR) were calculated using Review Manager Version 5.4 and meta-analyses performed using OR using fixed-effect (or random-effect) models, depending on the heterogeneity of studies.

RESULTS

13 studies (n = 2598), published between 2002 and 2019, were included in this meta-analysis, 6 retrospective, 2 propensity score-matched retrospective studies, 3 prospective studies and 2 randomised control trials from a total of 11 countries. There were 1433 in the no cholecystectomy cohort (55.2%) and 1165 in the prophylactic cholecystectomy (44.8%) cohort. Cholecystectomy resulted in a decreased risk of cholecystitis (OR = 0.15; CI 0.07-0.36; p < 0.0001), cholangitis (OR = 0.51; CI 0.26-1.00; p = 0.05) and mortality (OR = 0.38; CI 0.16-0.9; p = 0.03). In addition, prophylactic cholecystectomy resulted in a significant reduction in biliary events, biliary pain and pancreatitis.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients undergoing CBD clearance, consideration should be given to performing prophylactic cholecystectomy to optimise outcomes.

Cholangioscopy-assisted extraction through novel papillary support for small-calibre and sediment-like common bile duct stones

BACKGROUND

To date, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography has become a well-established treatment for common bile duct (CBD) stones. However, it is not suitable for some special patients, such as pregnant women, children or those who cannot stop taking anti-coagulation/anti-platelet agents because of radiation injury and the risk of postoperative bleeding resulting from endoscopic sphincterotomy. To overcome these two problems, this study introduced cholangioscopy-assisted extraction through a novel papillary support for small-calibre and sediment-like CBD stones.

AIM

To assess the feasibility and safety of cholangioscopy-assisted extraction through a novel papillary support (CEPTS) for small-calibre and sediment-like common bile duct (CBD) stones.

METHODS

This Retrospective study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Chinese PLA General Hospital. We designed a covered single dumbbell-style papillary support between 2021 and 2022. Between July 2022 and September 2022, 7 consecutive patients with small-calibre (cross diameter ≤ 1.0 cm) or sediment-like CBD stones underwent CETPS procedures in our center. The clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes of these 7 patients were extracted from a prospectively collected database. And the related data were analyzed. Informed consent was obtained from all participating patients.

RESULTS

A total of 2 patients had yellow sediment-like CBD stones, and aspiration extraction was performed after the insertion of papillary support. Of the 5 patients with clumpy CBD stones (0.4-1.0 cm), 2 underwent basket extraction under direct vision for a single stone (0.5-1.0 cm, black and black grey), 1 underwent balloon plus aspiration extraction under direct vision for 5 stones (0.4-0.6 cm, brown), and 2 underwent aspiration extraction only for a single stone (0.5-0.6 cm, yellow, none). Technical success, namely, no residual stones in the CBD or left and right hepatic ducts, was achieved in all 7 cases (100%). The median operating time was 45.0 minutes (range 13.0-87.0 minutes). Postoperative pancreatitis (PEP) occurred in one case (14.3%). Hyperamylasaemia without abdominal pain was noted in 2 of 7 patients. No residual stones or cholangitis were found during the follow-up.

CONCLUSION

CETPS appeared to be feasible to treat patients with small-calibre or sediment-like CBD stones. Patients, especially pregnant women and those who cannot stop anticoagulation/anti-platelet agents, could benefit from this technique.

Cholecystectomy after endoscopic sphincterotomy in elderly: A dilemma

Background/Aim: Although cholecystectomy is recommended by many guidelines after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) for gallstones, the necessity of cholecystectomy in geriatric patients is a matter of debate. Here we compare the outcomes of new biliary events in cholecystectomized and non-cholecystectomized patients of geriatric age after ERCP for suspected choledocholithiasis. Methods: Non-cholecystectomized patients who underwent ERCP for choledocholithiasis from 2015 to 2017 were included in this retrospective cohort study. Patients with other biliary pathologies, incomplete clearance of common bile duct stones, and those who could not be reached at follow-up were excluded from the study. Biliary events (cholecystitis, cholangitis, pancreatitis, re-ERCP) were evaluated by considering age groups in patients with and without cholecystectomy in their follow-up after sphincterotomy. Results: A total of 284 patients were followed for an average of 69.77 (0.2) months. The cumulative incidence of biliary events in cholecystectomized patients was lower (16% vs. 21.5%; P < 0.001), and cholecystectomized patients had a longer time to the occurrence of events (mean 74.49 [0.27] months vs. 73.50 [0.33] months; P = 0.03). There was no significant difference in the frequency of biliary events between elderly patients with and without cholecystectomy (P = 0.81), and the cumulative incidence of biliary events in the in situ group was significantly lower than that in the geriatric group (17.5% vs 32.6%; P = 0.03) Conclusion: Although cholecystectomy significantly reduces subsequent biliary complications in young patients, it does not provide a statistically significant benefit in geriatric patients. We believe that there may be no need for routine prophylactic cholecystectomy after endoscopic sphincterotomy in geriatric patients.

Destiny for Rendezvous: Is Cholecysto/Choledocholithiasis Better Treated with Dual- or Single-Step Procedures?

Biliary lithiasis is common worldwide, affecting almost 20% of the general population, though few experience symptoms. The frequency of choledocholithiasis in patients with symptomatic cholelithiasis is estimated to be 10-33%, depending on patients' age. Unlike gallbladder lithiasis, the medical and surgical treatment of common bile duct stones is uncertain, having changed over the last few years. The prior gold standard treatment for cholelithiasis and choledocholithiasis was open cholecystectomy with bile duct clearance, choledochotomy, and/or surgical sphincterotomy. In the last 10-15 years, new treatment approaches to the complex pathology of choledocholithiasis have emerged with the advent of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), laparoscopic surgery, and advanced diagnostic procedures. Although ERCP followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the preferred mode of management, a single-step strategy (laparo-endoscopic rendezvous) has gained acceptance due to lesser morbidity and a lower risk of iatrogenic damage. Given the above, a tailored approach relying on careful evaluation of the disease is necessary in order to minimize complication risks and overall costs. Yet, the debate remains open, with no consensus on the superiority of laparo-endoscopic rendezvous to more conventional approaches.

Increased Risk of Pyogenic Liver Abscess after Endoscopic Sphincterotomy for Treatment of Choledocholithiasis

Background and Aim

Endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) abolished the barrier between the hepatobiliary system and duodenum and might be at risk of pyogenic liver abscess (PLA). We aimed to identify the association factors of PLA in patients who underwent endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) procedures for treatment of choledocholithiasis.

Methods

This study was based on the Chung Gung Research Database (CGRD) between January 1, 2001 and December 31, 2018. Those who had an International Classification of Diseases, Ninth and Tenth Revision (ICD9 and ICD10) codes of choledocholithiasis and received ERCP were enrolled. After strict exclusions, 11,697 patients were further divided into the endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) group (n=7,111) and other ERCP group (n=4,586) for analysis.

Results

Patients receiving ES had significantly higher rates of PLA than those of the other ERCP group (5-year cumulative incidence 2.4% versus 1.7%; 10-year cumulative incidence 3.9% versus 3.2%, log-rank p=0.0177). Aging, male gender, surgery for hepato-pancreato-biliary system and hepatobiliary malignancy were significant association factors of PLA. On multivariate analysis, the ES increased the risk of PLA (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]=1.49; 95% CI=1.12-1.98; p=0.0058) but decreased the risks for acute pancreatitis (aHR=0.72; 95% CI=0.60-0.85; p=0.0002) and cholangitis (aHR= 0.91; 95% CI=0.84-0.99; p=0.0259). There was no significant difference about recurrent choledocholithiasis between groups.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated a significant risk of PLA after patients receiving ES compared with the other ERCP group. We should also carefully monitor the association factors of PLA after ERCP treatment of choledocholithiasis including aging, male gender, surgery for the hepato-pancreato-biliary system and hepatobiliary malignancy.

Cholecystectomy outcomes after endoscopic sphincterotomy in patients with choledocholithiasis: a meta-analysis

Background

Endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) is the standard treatment for common bile duct stones. The reported findings regarding complications, such as biliary pancreatitis and cholangitis, differ between cholecystectomy after ES. The purpose of this study is to compare cholecystectomy outcomes after endoscopic treatment of common bile duct stones whether or not the incidence of recurrent pancreatitis and cholangitis is reduced, especially in high-risk patients.

Methods

We analyzed 8 studies, including 7 randomized controlled trials retrieved from the PubMed (1990–2019), Embase (1990–2019), and Cochrane (1990–2019) databases for trials comparing the two strategies for treatment of gallstones after ES. A related study on gallbladder removal after ES was acquired, followed by analysis of each group using RevMan. Risk ratios (RRs) were calculated for categorical variables and differences in means were calculated for continuous variables.

Results

We retrieved a total of 8 studies, including seven randomized controlled trials and one retrospective study. A total of 12,717 patients were included in the study (4922 in the early cholecystectomy group and 7795 in the gallbladder in situ group). During the follow-up period, 41 patients had pancreatitis after ES in the cholecystectomy group and 177 patients in the wait-and-see group. The incidence of pancreatitis in the cholecystectomy group was significantly reduced (RR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.27–0.53; P < 0.00001; I² = 0%). The incidence of cholangitis and jaundice in the cholecystectomy group was also less than the preserved gallbladder group (RR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.26–0.38; P < 0.00001; I² = 0%). There was no significant difference in mortality between the two groups (RR, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.52–1.02; P = 0.07; I² = 14%). There was a significant difference in cholecystitis and biliary colic (RR, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.24–0.32; P < 0.00001; I² = 17%).

Conclusion

Early cholecystectomy after removal of common bile duct stones can effectively reduce biliary complications. This is still true for high-risk patients and has no significant effect on the mortality of patients. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is recommended after ES.

Cholecystectomy after Endoscopic Papillotomy for Choledocholithiasis in the Elderly—Is It Necessary?

Although elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the accepted strategy after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), papillotomy, and common bile duct (CBD) clearance, the decision to perform a cholecystectomy in high-risk elderly comorbid patients remains subjective and is controversial. The aim of this study was to examine the outcome of elderly patients with cholecystectomy deferral after successful initial endoscopic removal of CBD stones. The study examined a retrospective patient database, which included all patients aged >60 years who underwent an ERCP for CBD stones at the Chaim Sheba Medical Center. The study cohort was divided according to whether a subsequent cholecystectomy was performed and also by age 60 to 80 or >80 years. All biliary-related complications were recorded. The primary outcome measures were biliary complications, perioperative and periprocedural mortality, CBD stone recurrence, and the need for future surgical intervention. There were 111 patients (mean age 79.4 ± 9.1 years) who underwent ERCP with follow-up. After excluding 11 patients, 100 patients were left for analysis, 46 of whom underwent a cholecystectomy and 54 were observed without operation. There were significant longer term biliary complications in five of the operated patients (10.9%) and in four of the unoperated cases (7.4%). All biliary-related complications were managed successfully by conservative means except for one fatality in the nonoperated group. Biliary-related complications after successful ERCP for CBD stones were unaffected by surgery but were more commonly observed in older cases. A watch and wait policy may be justified in elderly comorbid patients.

Late Complications After Endoscopic Sphincterotomy

The introduction of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography with endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) has changed the treatment of choledocholithiasis. An increasing number of young patients are requiring ES, and this raises concern regarding any potential long-term complications arising from irreversibly altering the anatomy of the sphincter of Oddi. In particular, concern has been raised regarding the risk of late cholangiocarcioma. A review was performed evaluating the relationship between ES for benign disease and the subsequent development of late complications, including biliary tract malignancy, the formation of primary duct stones, and recurring cholangitis. A systematic review of articles published between 1970 and 2013 was undertaken. Current evidence shows that ES is a safe and effective treatment for common bile duct stones. The long-term risk of subsequent cholangiocarcinoma has not been convincingly proven although in many of these studies the follow-up period was inadequate. There does appear to be an associated increased incidence of cholangiocarcinomas following sphincterotomy although this is not proven to be causative. If there is an increased risk of cholangiocarcinoma following ES, it is likely to be small in western populations. However, until longer follow-up studies are published, it may be prudent to avoid ES in the very young.

Cholecystectomy After Endoscopic Sphincterotomy for Common Bile Duct Stones: Is Surgery Necessary?

It has been more than 30 years since the introduction of endoscopic sphincterotomy for the management of choledocholithiasis. Once introduced, this endoscopic intervention subsequently enabled clinicians to witness the natural history of leaving the gallbladder in situ once the common duct calculi were removed. Because many people were free of symptoms once the common bile duct was cleared of stones, patients and physicians alike soon questioned whether it was necessary to remove the gallbladder at all. Despite more than two decades of clinical research and numerous published reports, the answer to this question remains elusive. Similarly, the management algorithm for choledocholithiasis in patients with an intact gallbladder remains controversial. We review the available key data regarding this question. Importantly, there are only three prospective, randomized trials that have examined the need for cholecystectomy after endoscopic sphincterotomy, with case studies constituting most of the published reports. Consequently, the literature on this topic remains inconclusive, weakened by its retrospective approach, considerable variability between the patients studied, inconsistent inclusion and exclusion criteria, and frequently poor patient follow-up. Nonetheless, the preponderance of data favor removing the gallbladder after endoscopically clearing the common bile duct of gallstones because an estimated 25% of patients will experience recurrent symptoms within a 2-year follow up period. Recognizing the existence of various mitigating clinical factors, we advocate adopting a selective wait-and-see approach for high-risk patients, especially those with a life expectancy of less than 2 years or severely debilitating comorbidities.

TG13 current terminology, etiology, and epidemiology of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis

While referring to the evidence adopted in the Tokyo Guidelines 2007 (TG07) as well as subsequently obtained evidence, further discussion took place on terminology, etiology, and epidemiological data. In particular, new findings have accumulated on the occurrence of symptoms in patients with gallstones, frequency of severe cholecystitis and cholangitis, onset of cholecystitis and cholangitis after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography and medications, mortality rate, and recurrence rate. The primary etiology of acute cholangitis/cholecystitis is the presence of stones. Next to stones, the most significant etiology of acute cholangitis is benign/malignant stenosis of the biliary tract. On the other hand, there is another type of acute cholecystitis, acute acalculous cholecystitis, in which stones are not involved as causative factors. Risk factors for acute acalculous cholecystitis include surgery, trauma, burn, and parenteral nutrition. After 2000, the mortality rate of acute cholangitis has been about 10 %, while that of acute cholecystitis has generally been less than 1 %. After the publication of TG07, diagnostic criteria and severity assessment criteria were standardized, and the distribution of cases according to severity and comparison of clinical data among target populations have become more subjective. The concept of healthcare-associated infections is important in the current treatment of infection. The treatment of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis substantially differs from that of community-acquired infections. Cholangitis and cholecystitis as healthcare-associated infections are clearly described in the updated Tokyo Guidelines (TG13). Free full-text articles and a mobile application of TG13 are available via http://www.jshbps.jp/en/guideline/tg13.html.

Preventive saline irrigation of the bile duct after the endoscopic removal of common bile duct stones

BACKGROUND

Small stone fragments after an endoscopic stone extraction for choledocholithiasis may act as the nidus for recurrent choledocholithiasis. Therefore, efforts to eliminate the nidus might reduce the recurrence of choledocholithiasis and cholangitis related to choledocholithiasis.

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to determine whether an additional preventive saline irrigation of the bile duct after the endoscopic removal of common bile duct stones would decrease residual stones and the recurrence of cholangitis.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed for the consecutively collected data about the patients who underwent the complete endoscopic treatment for common bile duct stone.

RESULTS

Among 99 patients, 45 patients underwent saline irrigation. Residual stones were detected in 18 patients (18.2 %). The incidences of residual stones were 8.9 % (4 of 45 patients) in the irrigation group and 25.9 % (14 of 54 patients) in the non-irrigation group (P = 0.037). In multivariate analysis, preventive saline irrigation was found to be the only significant factor for the decrease of residual stones (HR = 0.258, P = 0.039). When analyzing the occurrence of recurrent cholangitis and the procedure related to complications, there were no significant differences according to the performance of preventive saline irrigation of the bile duct.

CONCLUSIONS

Preventive saline irrigation could reduce the residual common bile duct stones without complications.

Complications of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography: how to avoid and manage them

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) is a therapeutic procedure used to treat problems associated with biliary and pancreatic diseases. The benefits of ERCP over surgical treatment are well documented; however, complications including infection, pancreatitis, hemorrhage, and perforation can occur even in expert hands. Several factors, such as patient selection, skill of the operator, and the complexity of the procedure, can add to the intrinsic risks of ERCP This review outlines the current knowledge regarding ERCP complications and solutions for improved outcomes.

Severe acute cholangitis after endoscopic sphincterotomy induced by barium examination: A case report

Endoscopic sphincterotomy (EST) is considered as a possible etiological factor for severe cholangitis. We herein report a case of severe cholangitis after endoscopic sphincterotomy induced by barium examination. An adult male patient presented with epigastric pain was diagnosed as having choledocholithiasis by ultrasonography. EST was performed and the stone was completely cleaned. Barium examination was done 3 d after EST and severe cholangitis appeared 4 h later. The patient was recovered after treated with tienam for 4 d. Barium examination may induce severe cholangitis in patients after EST, although rare, barium examination should be chosen cautiously. Cautions should be also used when EST is performed in patients younger than 50 years to avoid the damage to the sphincter of Oddi.

Endoscopic papillary large balloon dilation for the treatment of recurrent bile duct stones in patients with prior sphincterotomy

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic sphincterotomy (EST) is a standard procedure for the removal of bile duct stones. However, additional EST may increase the risk of bleeding and perforation in patients with prior EST. Endoscopic papillary large balloon dilation (EPLBD) can be an alternative method for removing recurrent common bile duct stones with lower risk of bleeding and perforation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the therapeutic outcomes and complications of EPLBD in patients with recurrent common duct stones who underwent EST previously.

METHODS

Between January 2006 and August 2009, 70 patients with recurrent bile duct stones who had a history of EST were studied retrospectively. All patients underwent EPLBD without additional EST to enlarge the ampullary orifice. The size of the balloon for EPLBD was 12-18 mm and the duration of the balloon dilatation was 30-60 s.

RESULTS

Of the 70 patients, there were 24 patients (34.3%) with periampullary diverticula, 18 patients (25.7%) with hypertension, 4 patients (5.7%) with ischemic heart diseases, 2 patients (2.9%) with liver cirrhosis, and 1 patient (1.4%) with chronic kidney disease. Mean diameter of the stones was 12.5 ± 5.5 mm. Complete clearance of the duct was achieved in all patients and mechanical lithotripsy was needed in 1 patient (1.4%). Sixty-eight cases (97.1%) required only 1 session of ERCP to achieve complete ductal clearance. Mild pancreatitis occurred in 1 patient (2.3%), but there was no bleeding or perforation.

CONCLUSION

EPLBD is an effective and safe method for the treatment of recurrent common duct stones in patients with prior EST.

Long-term biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy restenosis: incidence, endoscopic management, and complications of retreatment

BACKGROUND

Ampullary restenosis is a late complication of biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy. Long-term data are limited regarding both the rate of restenosis and complications resulting from repeat therapy.

AIMS

To determine the incidence of post sphincterotomy restenosis and the effectiveness of endoscopic therapy in the management of this entity.

METHODS

A retrospective review of medical charts and the endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) database to identify patients with ERCP and biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy during the period 1998-2002 at the University of Iowa Hospitals was conducted. All subjects were contacted by phone and asked about the recurrence of their pancreatobiliary symptoms after the first ERCP and whether they sought any medical treatment for these symptoms. The primary outcome was restenosis of the sphincterotomy site and the secondary outcome was complications of endoscopic treatment of sphincterotomy restenosis.

RESULTS

A total of 202 patients underwent ERCP and biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy on an intact major papilla. Of these, n = 80 patients (54.7 +/- 19 years of age, 76% female) consented and enrolled in the study. Among these, n = 13 (16%) developed ampullary restenosis in 1-62 (median 16) months after the index ERCP. These 13 patients underwent a total of 24 ERCPs (range 1-4 for each patient) for repeat biliary sphincterotomy and biliary stenting, if needed. Repeat biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy was successful in 12/13 (92%) patients. Complications of repeat biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy were seen in three patients: mild pancreatitis (n = 1), severe bleeding (n = 1), and severe duodenal perforation (n = 1).

CONCLUSIONS

Long-term restenosis is an important sequella of biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy. Repeat biliary endoscopic sphincterotomy is an effective treatment modality, but complications are not negligible.

Post-ERCP pancreatitis

Pancreatitis remains the most common severe complication of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). Detailed information about the findings of previous studies concerning post-ERCP pancreatitis has not been utilized sufficiently. The purpose of the present article was to present guidelines for the diagnostic criteria of post-ERCP pancreatitis, and its incidence, risk factors, and prophylactic procedures that are supported by evidence. To achieve this purpose, a critical examination was made of the articles on post-ERCP pancreatitis, based on the data obtained by research studies published up to 2009. At present, there are no standardized diagnostic criteria for post-ERCP pancreatitis. It is appropriate that post-ERCP pancreatitis is defined as acute pancreatitis that has developed following ERCP, and its diagnosis and severity assessment should be made according to the diagnostic criteria and severity assessment of the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The incidence of acute pancreatitis associated with diagnostic and therapeutic ERCP is 0.4-1.5 and 1.6-5.4%, respectively. Endoscopic papillary balloon dilation is associated with a high risk of acute pancreatitis compared with endoscopic sphincterotomy. It was made clear that important risk factors include dysfunction of the Oddi sphincter, being of the female sex, past history of post-ERCP pancreatitis, and performance of pancreaticography. Temporary prophylactic placement of pancreatic stents in the high-risk group is useful for the prevention of post-ERCP pancreatitis [odds ratio (OR) 3.2, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-6.4, number needed to treat (NNT) 10]. Use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) is associated with a reduction in the development of post-ERCP pancreatitis (OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.32-0.65). Single rectal administration of NSAIDs is useful for the prevention of post-ERCP pancreatitis [relative risk (RR) 0.36, 95% CI 0.22-0.60, NNT 15] and decreases the development of pancreatitis in both the low-risk group (RR 0.29, 95% CI 0.12-0.71) and the high-risk group (RR 0.40, 95% CI 0.23-0.72) of post-ERCP pancreatitis. As for somatostatin, a bolus injection may be most useful compared with short- or long-term infusion (OR 0.271, 95% CI 0.138-0.536, risk difference 8.2%, 95% CI 4.4-12.0%). The usefulness of gabexate mesilate was not apparent in any of the following conditions: acute pancreatitis (control 5.7 vs. 4.8% for gabexate mesilate), hyperamylasemia (40.6 vs. 36.9%), and abdominal pain (1.7 vs. 8.9%). Formulation of diagnostic criteria for post-ERCP pancreatitis is needed. Temporary prophylactic placement of pancreatic stents in the high-risk group offers the most promise as a means of preventing post-ERCP pancreatitis. As for pharmacological attempts, there are high expectations concerning NSAIDs because they are excellent in terms of cost-effectiveness, ease of use, and safety. There was no evidence of effective prophylaxis with the use of protease inhibitors, especially gabexate mesilate.

Reoperation of the biliary tract by laparoscopy: an analysis of 39 cases

BACKGROUND

Previously, prior biliary tract surgery was considered a contraindication to laparoscopic biliary tract reoperation. In this paper, we present our experience with laparoscopic biliary tract reoperation for patients with the choledocholithiasis for whom the endoscopic sphincterotomy has failed or is contraindicated.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed on data from the attempted laparoscopic reoperation of 39 patients, examining open conversion rates, operative times, complications, and length of hospital stay.

RESULTS

Of 39 cases, 38 were completed laparoscopically: 1 case required a conversion to the open operation because of difficulty in exposing the common bile duct. Mean operative time was 135 minutes. Mean postoperative hospital stay was 4 days. Procedures included 3 cases of laparoscopic residual gallbladder resection, 13 cases of laparoscopic common bile duct exploration and primary duct closure of choledochotomy, and 22 cases of laparoscopic common bile duct exploration and choledochotomy with T-tube drainage. There was 1 case of duodenal perforation during dissection, which was repaired laparoscopically. There were 2 cases of retained stones. Postoperative asymptomatic hypermalasia occurred in 3 cases. There were no complications due to port placement, no postoperative bleeding, bile or bowel leakage, and no mortality. At a mean follow-up time of 18 months, there was no recurrence or formation of duct stricture.

CONCLUSIONS

The laparoscopic biliary tract reoperation is safe and feasible for experienced laparoscopic surgeons and is an alternative choice for patients with choledocholithiasis for whom the endoscopic sphincterectomy has failed or is contraindicated.

Reoperation of biliary tract by laparoscopy: Experiences with 39 cases

AIM: To evaluate the safety and feasibility of biliary tract reoperation by laparoscopy for the patients with retained or recurrent stones who failed in endoscopic sphincterotomy.

METHODS: A retrospective analysis of data obtained from attempted laparoscopic reoperation for 39 patients in a single institution was performed, examining open conversion rates, operative times, complications, and hospital stay.

RESULTS: Out of the 39 cases, 38 (97%) completed laparoscopy, 1 required conversion to open operation because of difficulty in exposing the common bile duct. The mean operative time was 135 min. The mean post-operative hospital stay was 4 d. Procedures included laparoscopic residual gallbladder resection in 3 cases, laparoscopic common bile duct exploration and primary duct closure at choledochotomy in 13 cases, and laparoscopic common bile duct exploration and choledochotomy with T tube drainage in 22 cases. Duodenal perforation occurred in 1 case during dissection and was repaired laparoscopically. Retained stones were found in 2 cases. Postoperative asymptomatic hyperamylasemia occurred in 3 cases. There were no complications due to port placement, postoperative bleeding, bile or bowel leakage and mortality. No recurrence or formation of duct stricture was observed during a mean follow-up period of 18 mo.

CONCLUSION: Laparoscopic biliary tract reoperation is safe and feasible if it is performed by experienced laparoscopic surgeons, and is an alternative choice for patients with choledocholithiasis who fail in endoscopic sphincterectomy.

[Therapeutic splitting as standard treatment for cholelithiasis]

At the moment, therapeutic splitting is still regarded by the vast majority of surgeons as the gold standard for stones in the common bile duct. Endoscopic clearance of the duct certainly is much less invasive than open exploration. However, this does not apply when compared with laparoscopic stone removal. Both are equivalent in respect to stone clearance rates, but the laparoscopic techniques protect patients from the long-term sequelae of endoscopic papillotomy. This can be important particularly for younger patients. Laparoscopic bile duct exploration is cost-effective and safe. Special experience in laparoscopic surgical techniques, however, is mandatory. Thus, surgeons should intensify their training in laparoscopic bile duct exploration in order to increase the acceptance of these techniques.

Cholecystectomy deferral in patients with endoscopic sphincterotomy

BACKGROUND

Cholecystectomy is not required in up to 64% of patients who adopt a wait-and-see policy after endoscopic clearance of common bile duct stones. Although reports of retrospective cohort series have shown a higher mortality among patients who defer cholecystectomy, it is not known if this is due to the patients' premorbid health status or due to the deferral of cholecystectomy. Randomised clinical trials of prophylactic cholecystectomy versus wait-and-see have not had sufficient power to demonstrate differences in survival.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the beneficial and harmful effects of cholecystectomy deferral (wait-and-see) versus elective (prophylactic) cholecystectomy in patients who have had an endoscopic biliary sphincterotomy.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched The Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE (1966 to 2007), EMBASE (1980 to 2007), and Science Citation Index Expanded without language restrictions until April 2007.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised clinical trials comparing patients whose gallbladder was left in-situ after endoscopic sphincterotomy (wait-and-see group) versus patients who had cholecystectomy with either endoscopic sphincterotomy or common bile duct exploration (prophylactic cholecystectomy group), irrespective of blinding, language, or publication status.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We assessed the impact of a wait-and-see policy on mortality. Secondary outcomes assessed were the incidence of biliary pain, cholangitis, pancreatitis, need for cholangiography, need for cholecystectomy, and the rate of difficult cholecystectomy. We pooled data using relative risk with fixed-effect and random-effects models.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 5 randomised trials with 662 participants out of 93 publications identified through the literature searches. The number of deaths was 47 in the wait-and-see group (334 patients) compared to 26 in the prophylactic cholecystectomy group (328 patients) for a 78% increased risk of mortality (RR 1.78, 95% CI 1.15 to 2.75, P = 0.010). The survival benefit of prophylactic cholecystectomy was independent of trial design, inclusion of high risk patients or inclusion of any one of the five trials. Patients in the wait-and-see group had higher rates of recurrent biliary pain (RR 14.56, 95% CI 4.95 to 42.78, P < 00001), jaundice or cholangitis (RR 2.53, 95% CI 1.09 to 5.87, P = 0.03), and of repeat ERCP or other forms of cholangiography (RR 2.36, 95% CI 1.29 to 4.32, P = 0.005). Cholecystectomy was eventually performed in 35% (115 patients) of the wait-and-see group.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Prophylactic cholecystectomy should be offered to patients whose gallbladders remain in-situ after endoscopic sphincterotomy and common bile duct clearance.

Iatrogenic ampullary stenosis: history, endoscopic management, and outcome in a series of 49 patients

BACKGROUND

Iatrogenic ampullary stenosis is a late complication of endoscopic interventions that affects the sphincter of Oddi.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the history, endoscopic treatment, and outcome of iatrogenic ampullary stenosis.

DESIGN

Patients' charts, endoscopic reports, and x-ray films were reviewed and scored. Long-term follow-up data were obtained by means of contact with attending specialists, general physicians, and patients. Ampullary stenoses were distinguished by 2 types: type I, limited to the intraduodenal portion of the sphincter complex; type II, all other types, including extension of the stenosis into the common bile duct (CBD).

SETTING

Tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

All patients treated for iatrogenic ampullary stenosis at our institution during the last 15 years were included.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Success of endoscopic treatment.

RESULTS

Forty-nine patients were included (mean age 54 years; 36 women; type I, n = 18, type II, n = 31). Treatment consisted of extending the sphincterotomy in type I stenoses and included stent treatment and/or balloon dilation in type II. During endoscopic treatment of ampullary stenosis, complications occurred in 8 of 49 patients. There were no procedure-related deaths. Median (range) follow-up after treatment was 2124 (240-4544) days. From an intention-to-treat perspective, endoscopic therapy of ampullary stenosis showed a long-term success rate of 83% in type I and 65% in type II CBD stenosis. In patients identified as treated successfully by endoscopy, blood samples obtained prospectively after a median (range) follow-up of 1971 (99-3320) days did not show signs of clinically relevant cholestasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic therapy is successful in the majority of patients and should be regarded as first-line treatment for iatrogenic ampullary stenosis.

Small sphincterotomy combined with papillary dilation with large balloon permits retrieval of large stones without mechanical lithotripsy

AIM

To introduce a new method: small endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) combined with endoscopic papillary large balloon dilation (SES + EPLBD) to treat patients with large biliary stones.

METHODS

Retrieval of large biliary stones was performed in 88 patients. Mean stone size was 14 +/- 3 mm and mean number of stones was 2.5 +/- 3.5. Firstly, ES with a small incision was performed. Next, endoscopic papillary dilation was performed with a large balloon to slowly match the size of the bile duct. Stones were then retrieved from the biliary duct with a balloon and a basket.

RESULTS

Stone retrieval was successful in all cases except one cystic duct stone case without the need to crush large stones. Mean procedure time was 30 +/- 5 min. Dilating the papillary orifice with a large balloon made it possible to remove large stones smoothly without crushing them. After dilation with the large balloon, there were some instances of oozing, but no perforations. One instance of post-procedural pancreatitis (1%) occurred.

CONCLUSION

SES + EPLBD was effective for the retrieval of large biliary stones without the use of mechanical lithotripsy.

How to predict the outcome of endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy in patients with difficult bile duct stones?

OBJECTIVE

Endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy is frequently used to overcome the difficulties of removing large bile duct stones endoscopically. The aim of this study was to identify predictors of endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy failure.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

One hundred and thirty-four patients who underwent mechanical lithotripsy for difficult choledocholithiasis were evaluated retrospectively. Predictive factors of outcome and procedure-related complications were analyzed. The clinical outcomes of subsequent management were also evaluated in cases of unsuccessful endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy.

RESULTS

Endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy was successful in 102 patients (76.1%). Stone impaction, size (>or=30 mm), and the stone size to bile duct diameter ratio (>1.0) were significant predictors of endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy failure, with estimated odds ratios of 17.83, 4.32 and 5.47, respectively. There was no difference in complication rates between the successful and failed mechanical lithotripsy groups. When mechanical lithotripsy failed, all patients were successfully treated using various modalities, including surgery, without mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

An impacted stone, stone size (>or=30 mm) and stone size to bile duct diameter ratio (>1.0) were predictors of failure of endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy for a difficult bile duct stone. Alternative approaches should be considered in patients with predictors of unsuccessful endoscopic mechanical lithotripsy in order to avoid wasting time and resources.

Small sphincterotomy combined with papillary dilation with large balloon permits retrieval of large stones without mechanical lithotripsy

AIM: To introduce a new method: small endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) combined with endoscopic papillary large balloon dilation (SES + EPLBD) to treat patients with large biliary stones.

METHODS: Retrieval of large biliary stones was performed in 88 patients. Mean stone size was 14 ± 3 mm and mean number of stones was 2.5 ± 3.5. Firstly, ES with a small incision was performed. Next, endoscopic papillary dilation was performed with a large balloon to slowly match the size of the bile duct. Stones were then retrieved from the biliary duct with a balloon and a basket.

RESULTS: Stone retrieval was successful in all cases except one cystic duct stone case without the need to crush large stones. Mean procedure time was 30 ± 5 min. Dilating the papillary orifice with a large balloon made it possible to remove large stones smoothly without crushing them. After dilation with the large balloon, there were some instances of oozing, but no perforations. One instance of post-procedural pancreatitis (1%) occurred.

CONCLUSION: SES + EPLBD was effective for the retrieval of large biliary stones without the use of mechanical lithotripsy.

The role of prophylactic cholecystectomy versus deferral in the care of patients after endoscopic sphincterotomy

INTRODUCTION

Prophylactic cholecystectomy (PC) is advised after ES and clearance of ductal calculi on the basis of a randomized controlled trial that showed a requirement for cholecystectomy in 36% of patients who defer surgery. Other studies suggest the cholecystectomy rate to be as low as 8%.

METHOD

To determine the proportion of patients who deferred cholecystectomy and the outcome, we reviewed 870 consecutive patients who underwent endoscopic retrograde cholangiography and sphincterotomy; the gallbladder of 420 of these remained in situ. Patients were assigned to PC or deferred cholecystectomy (DC) groups.

RESULTS

Cholecystectomy was deferred in 180 of 310 eligible patients. DC patients were significantly older (66.4 v. 49.8 yr) and sicker (according to the American Society of Anesthesiology [ASA] physiological status score) and had a significantly higher mortality rate than did PC patients. Deaths were principally cardiovascular and not biliary related. After a follow-up of 24.2 (<1-82.3) months, eventual cholecystectomy was required in 46 (24.7%) DC patients at a mean of 6 months after ES. The subgroup undergoing eventual cholecystectomy was younger (57.6 v. 69.4 yr; p<0.001) fitter (ASA score of 1.98 v. 2.26; p=0.015) and more likely to have residual cholecystolithiasis than were those who continued deferral. Recurrent pancreatitis was more common in DC (30%) than in PC (4.8%) patients if pancreatitis was the indication for sphincterotomy.

DISCUSSION

PC is advised for patients with residual cholecystolithiasis after ES. In patients with relative contraindications, the choice is balanced in favour of cholecystectomy if there is a history of pancreatitis and in favour of deferral if more than 6 months have elapsed since ES.

Definitions, pathophysiology, and epidemiology of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis: Tokyo Guidelines

This article discusses the definitions, pathophysiology, and epidemiology of acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. Acute cholangitis and cholecystitis mostly originate from stones in the bile ducts and gallbladder. Acute cholecystitis also has other causes, such as ischemia; chemicals that enter biliary secretions; motility disorders associated with drugs; infections with microorganisms, protozoa, and parasites; collagen disease; and allergic reactions. Acute acalculous cholecystitis is associated with a recent operation, trauma, burns, multisystem organ failure, and parenteral nutrition. Factors associated with the onset of cholelithiasis include obesity, age, and drugs such as oral contraceptives. The reported mortality of less than 10% for acute cholecystitis gives an impression that it is not a fatal disease, except for the elderly and/or patients with acalculous disease. However, there are reports of high mortality for cholangitis, although the mortality differs greatly depending on the year of the report and the severity of the disease. Even reports published in and after the 1980s indicate high mortality, ranging from 10% to 30% in the patients, with multiorgan failure as a major cause of death. Because many of the reports on acute cholecystitis and cholangitis use different standards, comparisons are difficult. Variations in treatment and risk factors influencing the mortality rates indicate the necessity for standardized diagnostic, treatment, and severity assessment criteria.

Endoscopic sphincterotomy with or without cholecystectomy for choledocholithiasis in high-risk surgical patients: a decision analysis

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is recommended for patients with choledocholithiasis after ERCP with sphincterotomy (ES) and stone extraction.

AIM

We designed a decision model to address whether ES alone versus ES followed by LC (ES + LC) is the optimal treatment in high-risk patients with choledocholithiasis.

METHODS

Our cohort were patients with obstructive jaundice who have undergone an ES with biliary clearance. Recurrent biliary complications over a 2-year period stratified by gallbladder status (in/out) and age-stratified surgical complication rates were obtained from the literature. Failure of therapy was defined as either recurrent symptoms or death attributed to biliary complications.

RESULTS

For age 70-79 years, ES failed in 15% whereas ES + LC failed in 17% of cases. Mortality in the EC + LC group was 3.4 times that of the ES alone cohort. For age 80+ years, ES was dominant with an incremental success rate of 8%. Mortality in the ES + LC was 7.6 times that of ES. For age <70, ES + LC was the dominant strategy with an incremental success rate 5%. Sensitivity analysis in the groups confirmed our conclusions.

CONCLUSIONS

Management of choledocholithiasis by ES and stone clearance, but without cholecystectomy, should be considered for patients aged 70+. For low-risk patients, ES + LC should be performed to prevent recurrent biliary complications.

Recurrent symptomatic common bile duct stones after endoscopic stone extraction in elderly patients

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic sphincterotomy (EST) and stone extraction are established therapeutic procedures for common bile duct (CBD) stones. Little is known about the outcomes of EST for CBD stones among elderly patients.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the rate and the risk factors (CBD dilation and/or angulation, periampullary diverticulum, and past open cholecystectomy) for recurrent symptomatic CBD stones after EST in the elderly.

DESIGN AND PATIENTS

A total of 228 patients who underwent EST for CBD stones in the period 1997 to 2004 were included. Follow-up data were obtained from medical records and by questioning all the patients. The correlation between age and stone recurrence, as well as between age and the prevalence of risk factors for recurrence was calculated. In addition, a subgroup of 45 elderly patients aged > or =80 years was compared with a control subgroup of 51 young patients aged < or =50 years, in terms of stone recurrence and associated risk factors.

SETTING

Single-center, retrospective study.

INTERVENTIONS

Endoscopic sphincterotomy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Symptomatic CBD stone recurrence rate and frequency of risk factors for it.

RESULTS

In the group of all patients, a correlation was found between the age and stone recurrence, as well as between age and the known risk factors for recurrent stones. In analyzing the 2 subgroups, CBD stones recurred in 20% of the elderly patients compared with 4% of the young patients. Risk factors for recurrent CBD stones were more common in the elderly, and so was the presence of multiple risk factors in the same patient.

CONCLUSIONS

Recurrence of symptomatic CBD stones after endoscopic therapy was more frequent in the elderly patients because of an increased frequency of risk factors.

JPN Guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis: epidemiology, etiology, natural history, and outcome predictors in acute pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis is a common disease with an annual incidence of between 5 and 80 people per 100 000 of the population. The two major etiological factors responsible for acute pancreatitis are alcohol and cholelithiasis (gallstones). The proportion of patients with pancreatitis caused by alcohol or gallstones varies markedly in different countries and regions. The incidence of acute alcoholic pancreatitis is considered to be associated with high alcohol consumption. Although the incidence of alcoholic pancreatitis is much higher in men than in women, there is no difference in sexes in the risk involved after adjusting for alcohol intake. Other risk factors include endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, surgery, therapeutic drugs, HIV infection, hyperlipidemia, and biliary tract anomalies. Idiopathic acute pancreatitis is defined as acute pancreatitis in which the etiological factor cannot be specified. However, several studies have suggested that this entity includes cases caused by other specific disorders such as microlithiasis. Acute pancreatitis is a potentially fatal disease with an overall mortality of 2.1%–7.8%. The outcome of acute pancreatitis is determined by two factors that reflect the severity of the illness: organ failure and pancreatic necrosis. About half of the deaths in patients with acute pancreatitis occur within the first 1–2 weeks and are mainly attributable to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Depending on patient selection, necrotizing pancreatitis develops in approximately 10%–20% of patients and the mortality is high, ranging from 14% to 25% of these patients. Infected pancreatic necrosis develops in 30%–40% of patients with necrotizing pancreatitis and the incidence of MODS in such patients is high. The recurrence rate of acute pancreatitis is relatively high: almost half the patients with acute alcoholic pancreatitis experience a recurrence. When the gallstones are not treated, the risk of recurrence in gallstone pancreatitis ranges from 32% to 61%. After recovering from acute pancreatitis, about one-third to one-half of acute pancreatitis patients develop functional disorders, such as diabetes mellitus and fatty stool; the incidence of chronic pancreatitis after acute pancreatitis ranges from 3% to 13%. Nevertheless, many reports have shown that most patients who recover from acute pancreatitis regain good general health and return to their usual daily routine. Some authors have emphasized that endocrine function disorders are a common complication after severe acute pancreatitis has been treated by pancreatic resection.

Prise en charge de la lithiase de la voie biliaire principale

Choledocholithiasis is a not uncommon and potentially grave condition which requires a well-adapted approach. Echo endoscopy and biliary MRI have improved the ability to make the diagnosis non-invasively, but intraoperative cholangiography remains the most accurate study. A surgical approach permits simultaneous treatment of both choledocholithiasis and the associated cholecystolithiasis; laparoscopic common duct exploration has been more frequently performed through a laparoscopic approach in recent years, but this procedure requires specific equipment and surgical experience. In most circumstances, surgery should be preferred to endoscopic clearance of the common duct, but endoscopy may be preferred in the setting of severe cholangitis or pancreatitis. The importance of a systematic search for asymptomatic choledocholithiasis is once again emphasized.

Economical and clinical outcomes of alternative treatment strategies in the management of common bile duct stones in the elderly: wait and see or surgery?

BACKGROUND

Common bile duct stones (CBDS) are especially prevalent in the elderly population. Although the standard of care for stone removal is endoscopic retrograde cholangiography with sphincterotomy (ERC-S), the clinician's decision to refer a patient for cholecystectomy after ERC-S depends on several factors including potential for future biliary symptoms and complications, morbidity and mortality related to cholecystectomy, and costs associated with referral for cholecystectomy versus conservative approach. Using decision analysis, we explored the economic implications of cholecystectomy versus expectant management following ERC-S in elderly patients with CBDS.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

A decision tree was constructed with DATA 3.5 (Williamstown, MA) to estimate the costs and outcomes associated with two treatment strategies following ERC-S for CBDS in patients age 60 yr and older: (1) elective cholecystectomy, and (2) expectant management. Probabilities for potential complications and outcomes were derived from the medical literature and cost reflected Medicare reimbursement rates at our institution. The time horizon of the analysis was 2 yr.

RESULTS

Elective cholecystectomy was associated with total costs of 5,259 dollars with 94.3% of the cohort alive (1.886 life-years) at 2 yr, whereas expectant management was associated with total costs of 1,173 dollars with 94.7% of the cohort alive (1.894 life-years). The results were sensitive to the probability of recurrent biliary symptoms in patients treated conservatively. Compared to elective cholecystectomy, expectant management became less effective and more expensive at a yearly probability of recurrent symptoms greater than 40% and 90%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients aged 60 and older, expectant management after ERC-S for CBDS is a reasonable approach, but the economic attractiveness of this strategy is highly dependent on the probability of recurrent symptoms.

Risk factors of acute cholecystitis after endoscopic common bile duct stone removal

AIM: To evaluate the risk factors of acute cholecystitis after endoscopic common bile duct (CBD) stone removal.

METHODS: A total 100 of patients who underwent endoscopic CBD stone removal with gallbladder (GB) in situ without subsequent cholecystectomy from January 2000 to July 2004 were evaluated retrospectively. The following factors were considered while evaluating risk factors for the development of acute cholecystitis: age, gender, serum bilirubin level, GB wall thickening, cystic duct patency, presence of a GB stone, CBD diameter, residual stone, lithotripsy, juxtapapillary diverticulum, presence of liver cirrhosis or diabetes mellitus, a presenting illness of cholangitis or pancreatitis, and procedure-related complications.

RESULTS: During a mean 18-mo follow-up, 28 (28%) patients developed biliary symptoms; 17 (17%) acute cholecystitis and 13 (13%) CBD stone recurrence. Of patients with acute cholecystitis, 15 (88.2%) received laparoscopic cholecystectomy and 2 (11.8%) open cholecystectomy. All recurrent CBD stones were successfully removed endoscopically. The mean time elapse to acute cholecystitis was 10.2 mo (1-37 mo) and that to recurrent CBD stone was 18.4 mo. Of the 17 patients who received cholecystectomy, 2 (11.8%) developed recurrent CBD stones after cholecystectomy. By multivariate analysis, a serum total bilirubin level of

<1.3 mg/dL and a CBD diameter of <11 mm at the time of stone removal were found to predict the development of acute cholecystitis.

CONCLUSION: After CBD stone removal, there is no need for routine prophylactic cholecystectomy. However, patients without a dilated bile duct (<11 mm) and jaundice (<1.3 mg/dL) at the time of CBD stone removal have a higher risk of acute cholecystitis and are possible candidates for prophylactic cholecystectomy.

Cholecystectomy or gallbladder in situ after endoscopic sphincterotomy and bile duct stone removal in Chinese patients

BACKGROUND & AIMS

In patients with stones in their bile ducts and gallbladders, cholecystectomy is generally recommended after endoscopic sphincterotomy and clearance of bile duct stones. However, only approximately 10% of patients with gallbladders left in situ will return with further biliary complications. Expectant management is alternately advocated. In this study, we compared the treatment strategies of laparoscopic cholecystectomy and gallbladders left in situ.

METHODS

We randomized patients (>60 years of age) after endoscopic sphincterotomy and clearance of their bile duct stones to receive early laparoscopic cholecystectomy or expectant management. The primary outcome was further biliary complications. Other outcome measures included adverse events after cholecystectomy and late deaths from all causes.

RESULTS

One hundred seventy-eight patients entered into the trial (89 in each group); 82 of 89 patients who were randomized to receive laparoscopic cholecystectomy underwent the procedure. Conversion to open surgery was needed in 16 of 82 patients (20%). Postoperative complications occurred in 8 patients (9%). Analysis was by intention to treat. With a median follow-up of approximately 5 years, 6 patients (7%) in the cholecystectomy group returned with further biliary events (cholangitis, n = 5; biliary pain, n = 1). Among those with gallbladders in situ, 21 (24%) returned with further biliary events (cholangitis, n = 13; acute cholecystitis, n = 5; biliary pain, n = 2; and jaundice, n = 1; log rank, P = .001). Late deaths were similar between groups (cholecystectomy, n = 19; gallbladder in situ, n = 11; P = .12).

CONCLUSIONS

In the Chinese, cholecystectomy after endoscopic treatment of bile duct stones reduces recurrent biliary events and should be recommended.

Long-term symptoms following endoscopic sphincterotomy for common bile duct stones

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic sphincterotomy (ES) has an important role in the management of biliary stones. However, the long-term effects of free duodenobiliary reflux are not established, and it may lead to low-grade morbidity.

METHODS

We used a questionnaire survey to assess the prevalence of symptoms of biliary disorder in patients who had undergone endoscopic retrograde cholangio pancreatography (ERCP) and ES under the care of a single surgeon (R.J.R.G) between November 1993 and May 1998.

RESULTS

ES was carried out on 136 patients during this period. Current addresses were available for 94 patients, and 54 of them (57%) responded. Patients were surveyed a mean of 43 months after ES. Only 42.1% of patients denied having any symptoms. Nausea and pale stools were reported by 28% and 26% of patients, respectively, and nearly one-fifth of patients had symptoms suggestive of cholangitis. In addition, 18.5% of patients experienced one or more symptoms frequently.

CONCLUSION

Severe long-term symptoms are uncommon following ES; however, a significant minority of patients do suffer occasional symptoms that suggest biliary dysfunction.

Diagnosis and management of cholecystitis and cholangitis

Cholelithiasis is a prevalent condition in Western populations. Most cases are asymptomatic but complications can occur. Acute cholangitis, cholecystitis, and gallstone pancreatitis are the most common biliary tract emergencies and are usually caused by biliary calculi. Whenever possible, acute cholecystitis should be treated with early LC. AAC is an uncommon condition usually affecting patients with significant comorbidities. Treatment is usually with percutaneous cholecystostomy, which often is also the only required therapy. Endoscopic drainage is the preferred form of biliary decompression in acute cholangitis and these patients should subsequently undergo elective LC unless unfit for surgery. Effective and optimal management of biliary tract emergencies relies on close cooperation between gastroenterologist, surgeon, and radiologist.

Comparison of endoscopic sphincterotomy and laparoscopic exploration of the common bile duct

BACKGROUND

Laparoscopic exploration of the common bile duct is becoming more popular, although endoscopic sphincterotomy remains the usual treatment for bile duct stones. However, loss of the biliary sphincter causes permanent duodenobiliary reflux, and recurrent stone disease and biliary neoplasia may be a consequence.

METHODS

A systematic literature review was conducted to compare laparoscopic exploration with endoscopic sphincterotomy. A text word search of the Medline, Pubmed and Cochrane databases, and a manual search of the citations from these references, was used.

RESULTS

Endoscopic sphincterotomy is associated with a median (range) mortality rate of 1 (0-6) per cent, compared with 1 (0-5) per cent for laparoscopic bile duct exploration. The median (range) rate of pancreatitis following endoscopic sphincterotomy is 3 (1-19) per cent; this is a rare complication after laparoscopic duct exploration. The combined morbidity rate for laparoscopic cholecystectomy and endoscopic sphincterotomy is 13 (3-16) per cent, which is greater than 8 (2-17) per cent for laparoscopic bile duct exploration. Randomized trials are few and contain relatively small numbers of patients. They show little overall difference in rates of duct clearance, but a higher mortality rate and number of hospital admissions are noted for endoscopic sphincterotomy compared with laparoscopic bile duct exploration. Endoscopic sphincterotomy is associated with recurrent stone formation (up to 16 per cent) with associated cholangitis. It is also associated with bacterobilia and chronic mucosal inflammation. The late development of bile duct cancer has been reported in up to 2 per cent of patients.

CONCLUSION

Laparoscopic exploration of the common bile duct may be a better way of removing stones than endoscopic sphincterotomy plus laparoscopic cholecystectomy. :

Risk factors for complications after performance of ERCP

BACKGROUND

ERCP has become widely available for the diagnosis and treatment of benign and malignant pancreaticobiliary diseases. In this prospective study, the overall complication rate and risk factors for diagnostic and therapeutic ERCP were identified.

METHODS

Data were collected prospectively on patient characteristics and endoscopic techniques from 1223 ERCPs performed at a single referral center and entered into a database. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to identify risk factors for ERCP-associated complications.

RESULTS

Of 1223 ERCPs performed, 554 (45.3%) were diagnostic and 667 (54.7%) therapeutic. The overall complication rate was 11.2%. Post-ERCP pancreatitis was the most common (7.2%) and in 93% of cases was self-limiting, requiring only conservative treatment. Bleeding occurred in 10 patients (0.8%) and was related to a therapeutic procedure in all cases. Nine patients had cholangitis develop, most cases being secondary to incomplete drainage. There was one perforation (0.08%). All other complications totaled 1.5%. Variables derived from cannulation technique associated with an increased risk for post-ERCP pancreatitis were precut access papillotomy (20%), multiple cannulation attempts (14.9%), sphincterotome use to achieve cannulation (13.1%), pancreatic duct manipulation (13%), multiple pancreatic injections (12.3%), guidewire use to achieve cannulation (10.2%), and the extent of pancreatic duct opacification (10%). Patient characteristics associated with an increased risk of pancreatitis were sphincter of Oddi dysfunction (21.7%) documented by manometry, previous ERCP-related pancreatitis (19%), and recurrent pancreatitis (16.2%). Pain during the procedure was an important indicator of an increased risk of post-ERCP pancreatitis (27%). Independent risk factors for post-ERCP pancreatitis were identified as a history of recurrent pancreatitis, previous ERCP-related pancreatitis, multiple cannulation attempts, pancreatic brush cytology, and pain during the procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

The most frequent ERCP-related complication was pancreatitis, which was mild in the majority of patients. The frequency of post-ERCP pancreatitis was similar for both diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. Bleeding was rare and mostly associated with sphincterotomy. Other complications such as cholangitis and perforation were rare. Specific patient- and technique-related characteristics that can increase the risk of post-ERCP complications were identified.