Postoperative neuralgia in the leg after saphenous vein coronary artery bypass graft: a prospective study

A review of the best method of leg wound closure following open harvesting of the long saphenous vein for coronary artery bypass grafting

Uncertainty exists around the optimal method of leg wound closure following open long saphenous vein harvesting in adults undergoing coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG). Such is evident from the variety observed in the closure approach utilised. Consequently, a best evidence topic in cardiac surgery was written according to a structured protocol. The question addressed was ‘following open long saphenous vein harvesting in adults undergoing CABG, is single-layer leg wound closure superior to multiple-layer closure in terms of post-operative complications encountered? ‘. Altogether 382 papers on Ovid Embase and Ovid Medline, 301 papers on PubMed and 11 papers on the Cochrane database were found using the reported search. From the screened articles, 6 represented the best evidence to answer the clinical question. The authors, journal, date and country of publication, patient group studied, study type, relevant outcomes and results of these papers are tabulated. We conclude that the best method of leg closure following open saphenous vein harvesting for CABG is single-layer cutaneous closure. The use of a suction drain to eliminate the dead space should be considered on a case-to-case basis by the lead operating surgeon with the patient's characteristics and their own expertise in mind.

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Uncertainty exists around the best closure method after open harvesting of the long saphenous vein for CABG in adults.

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Various options include single-layer and multiple-layer closure.

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Therefore, we conducted a literature review to identify the best closure technique.

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We conclude that the best method is single-layer cutaneous closure.

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The use of a suction drain to eliminate the dead space should be considered.

Subcuticular sutures for skin closure in non-obstetric surgery

BACKGROUND

Following surgery, surgical wounds can be closed using a variety of devices including sutures (subcuticular or transdermal), staples and tissue adhesives. Subcuticular sutures are intradermal stitches (placed immediately below the epidermal layer). The increased availability of synthetic absorbable filaments (stitches which are absorbed by the body and do not have to be removed) has led to an increased use of subcuticular sutures. However, in non-obstetric surgery, there is still controversy about whether subcuticular sutures increase the incidence of wound complications.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the efficacy and acceptability of subcuticular sutures for skin closure in non-obstetric surgery.

SEARCH METHODS

In March 2019, we searched the Cochrane Wounds Specialised Register; the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); Ovid MEDLINE (including In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations); Ovid Embase and EBSCO CINAHL Plus. We also searched clinical trials registries for ongoing and unpublished studies, and scanned reference lists of relevant included studies as well as reviews, meta-analyses and health technology reports to identify additional studies. There were no restrictions with respect to language, date of publication or study setting.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled trials which compared subcuticular sutures with any other methods for skin closure in non-obstetric surgery were included in the review.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently identified the trials, extracted data and carried out risk of bias and GRADE assessment of the certainty of the evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 66 studies (7487 participants); 11 included trials had more than two arms. Most trials had poorly-reported methodology, meaning that it is unclear whether they were at high risk of bias. Most trials compared subcuticular sutures with transdermal sutures, skin staples or tissue adhesives. Most outcomes prespecified in the review protocol were reported. The certainty of evidence varied from high to very low in the comparisons of subcuticular sutures with transdermal sutures or staples and tissue adhesives; the certainty of the evidence for the comparison with surgical tapes and zippers was low to very low. Most evidence was downgraded for imprecision or risk of bias. Although the majority of studies enrolled people who underwent CDC class 1 (clean) surgeries, two-thirds of participants were enrolled in studies which included CDC class 2 to 4 surgeries, such as appendectomies and gastrointestinal surgeries. Most participants were adults in a hospital setting. Subcuticular sutures versus transdermal sutures There may be little difference in the incidence of SSI (risk ratio (RR) 1.10; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.80 to 1.52; 3107 participants; low-certainty evidence). It is uncertain whether subcuticular sutures reduce wound complications (RR 0.83; 95% CI 0.40 to 1.71; 1489 participants; very low-certainty evidence). Subcuticular sutures probably improve patient satisfaction (score from 1 to 10) (at 30 days; MD 1.60, 95% CI 1.32 to 1.88; 290 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Wound closure time is probably longer when subcuticular sutures are used (MD 5.81 minutes; 95% CI 5.13 to 6.49 minutes; 585 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Subcuticular sutures versus skin staples There is moderate-certainty evidence that, when compared with skin staples, subcuticular sutures probably have little effect on SSI (RR 0.81, 95% CI 0.64 to 1.01; 4163 participants); but probably decrease the incidence of wound complications (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.64 to 0.98; 2973 participants). Subcuticular sutures are associated with slightly higher patient satisfaction (score from 1 to 5) (MD 0.20, 95% CI 0.10 to 0.30; 1232 participants; high-certainty evidence). Wound closure time may also be longer compared with staples (MD 0.30 to 5.50 minutes; 1384 participants; low-certainty evidence). Subcuticular sutures versus tissue adhesives, surgical tapes and zippers There is moderate-certainty evidence showing no clear difference in the incidence of SSI between participants treated with subcuticular sutures and those treated with tissue adhesives (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.45; 869 participants). There is also no clear difference in the incidence of wound complications (RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.35 to 1.11; 1058 participants; low-certainty evidence). Subcuticular sutures may also achieve lower patient satisfaction ratings (score from 1 to 10) (MD -2.05, 95% CI -3.05 to -1.05; 131 participants) (low-certainty evidence). In terms of SSI incidence, the evidence is uncertain when subcuticular sutures are compared with surgical tapes (RR 1.31, 95% CI 0.40 to 4.27; 354 participants; very low-certainty evidence) or surgical zippers (RR 0.80, 95% CI 0.08 to 8.48; 424 participants; very low-certainty evidence). There may be little difference in the incidence of wound complications between participants treated with subcuticular sutures and those treated with surgical tapes (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.61 to 1.34; 492 participants; low-certainty evidence). It is uncertain whether subcuticular sutures reduce the risk of wound complications compared with surgical zippers (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.15 to 2.04; 424 participants; very low-certainty evidence). It is also uncertain whether it takes longer to close a wound with subcuticular sutures compared with tissue adhesives (MD -0.34 to 10.39 minutes; 895 participants), surgical tapes (MD 0.74 to 6.36 minutes; 169 participants) or zippers (MD 4.38 to 8.25 minutes; 424 participants) (very low-certainty evidence). No study reported results for patient satisfaction compared with surgical tapes or zippers.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is no clear difference in the incidence of SSI for subcuticular sutures in comparison with any other skin closure methods. Subcuticular sutures probably reduce wound complications compared with staples, and probably improve patient satisfaction compared with transdermal sutures or staples. However, tissue adhesives may improve patient satisfaction compared with subcuticular sutures, and transdermal sutures and skin staples may be quicker to apply than subcuticular sutures. The quality of the evidence ranged from high to very low; evidence for almost all comparisons was subject to some limitations. There seems to be no need for additional new trials to explore the comparison with staples because there are high-quality studies with large sample sizes and some ongoing studies. However, there is a need for studies exploring the comparisons with transdermal sutures, tissue adhesives, tapes and zippers, with high-quality studies and large sample sizes, including long-term assessments.

Morphology of saphenous nerve in cadavers: a guide to saphenous block and surgical interventions

The knowledge about detailed morphology and relation of saphenous nerve is important to obtain successful saphenous nerve regional blocks to achieve pre- and post-operative anesthesia and analgesia, nerve entrapment treatments and to avoid damage of saphenous nerve during knee and ankle surgeries. The literature describing detailed morphology of saphenous nerve is very limited. We dissected 42 formalin fixed well embalmed cadaveric lower limbs to explore detailed anatomy, relation and mode of termination of saphenous nerve and measured the distances from the nearby palpable bony landmarks. The average distance of origin of saphenous nerve from inguinal crease was 7.89±1.42 cm, the distance from upper end of medial border of patella to saphenous nerve at that level was 8.11±0.85 cm, distance from tibial tuberosity was 7.53±0.98 cm and from midpoint of anterior border of medial malleolus was 0.45±0.14 cm. Saphenous nerve provided two infrapatellar branches at the level of mid to lower limit of patellar ligament in 90% cases. It was in close contact or adhered to great saphenous vein across the lower 2/3rd of leg lying either anterior, posterior or deep to the vein. The saphenous nerve terminated by bifurcating proximal to medial malleolus in majority of cases though no obvious bifurcation was observed in 9.52% cases. The detailed morphology, relations and the distances from palpable bony landmarks may be helpful for clinicians to achieve successful saphenous nerve block and to avoid saphenous nerve damage and related complications during orthopedic procedures.

Neurologic complications of cardiac and vascular surgery

This chapter will provide an overview of the major neurologic complications of common cardiac and vascular surgeries, such as coronary artery bypass grafting and carotid endarterectomy. Neurologic complications after cardiac and vascular surgeries can cause significant morbidity and mortality, which can negate the beneficial effects of the intervention. Some of the complications to be discussed include ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, seizures, delirium, cognitive dysfunction, cerebral hyperperfusion syndrome, cranial nerve injuries, and peripheral neuropathies. The severity of these complications can range from mild to lethal. The etiology of complications can include a variety of mechanisms, which can differ based on the type of cardiac or vascular surgery that is performed. Our knowledge about neuropathology, prevention, and management of surgical complications is growing and will be discussed in this chapter. It is imperative for clinicians to be familiar with these complications in order to narrow the differential diagnosis, start early management, anticipate the natural history, and improve outcomes.

“Other” Neurologic Complications After Cardiac Surgery

Compared to the neurologic morbidity of stroke and cognitive dysfunction, “other” neurologic complications involving injuries to the brachial plexus, phrenic nerve, cranial nerves, other peripheral nerves, as well as the visual pathways, have been disproportionately underrepresented in the cardiac surgery and anesthesiology literature. These injuries are often missed in the early postoperative period when attention is focused principally on recovery from the acute trespass of cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass. However, when these problems do become apparent, they can cause considerable discomfort and morbidity. An overview of the current concepts of injury mechanisms/etiology, diagnosis, prognosis, and when possible, prevention of these injuries is presented.

Risk Factors for Chronic Saphenous Neuralgia Following Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery Utilizing Saphenous Vein Grafts

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this trial was to determine risk factors for chronic saphenous neuralgia (SN) following harvesting of the great saphenous vein (GSV) for coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery.

METHODS

In a prospective observational trial, 526 patients with no history of chronic painful disorders or surgery in the lower limbs were followed up for 13 weeks after undergoing CABG surgery in which GSV grafts were used. The primary outcome measure was persistence of clinically significant pain of neuropathic type in the territory supplied by the saphenous nerve beyond 12 weeks after surgery.

RESULTS

Eighty-one (15.4%) patients consistently had probable neuropathic pain of clinically significant severity throughout the follow-up period and were labeled as suffering from chronic SN. Multivariable binary logistic regression analysis showed that younger age (OR, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.88-0.95; P-value, < 0.0001), female gender (OR, 2.28; 95% CI, 1.21-4.29; P-value, 0.011), higher body mass index (OR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.17-1.35; P-value, < 0.0001), diabetes mellitus (OR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.13-4.01; P-value, 0.020), distal-to-proximal dissection of the GSV (OR, 7.28; 95% CI, 3.62-14.66; P-value, < 0.0001), and closure of the leg wound in two layers (OR, 3.28; 95% CI, 1.81-5.95; P-value, 0.0001) were independent risk factors for chronic SN.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic SN after CABG surgery utilizing GSV grafts is not uncommon. Risk factors identified in this trial are younger age, female gender, higher body mass index, diabetes mellitus, distal-to-proximal dissection of the GSV, and closure of the leg wound in two layers.

Neuropathic aspects of persistent postsurgical pain: a French multicenter survey with a 6-month prospective follow-up

To investigate the role of peripheral neuropathy in the development of neuropathic postsurgical persistent pain (N-PSPP) after surgery, this French multicentric prospective cohort study recruited 3,112 patients prior to elective cesarean, inguinal herniorrhaphy (open mesh/laparoscopic), breast cancer surgery, cholecystectomy, saphenectomy, sternotomy, thoracotomy, or knee arthroscopy. Besides perioperative data collection, postoperative postal questionnaires built to assess the existence, intensity, and neuropathic features (with the Douleur Neuropathique 4 Questions [DN4]) of pain at the site of surgery were sent at the third and sixth months after surgery. In the 2,397 patients who completed follow-up, the cumulative risk of N-PSPP within the 6 months ranged from 3.2% (laparoscopic herniorrhaphy) to 37.1% (breast cancer surgery). Pain intensity was greater if DN4 was positive and decreased with time since surgery; it depended on the type of surgery. In pain-reporting patients, the response to the DN4 changed from time to time in about 1:4 of the cases. Older age and a low anxiety score were independent protective factors of N-PSPP, whereas a recent negative event, a low preoperative quality of life, and previous history of peripheral neuropathy were risk factors. The type of anesthesia had no influence on the occurrence of N-PSPP.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00812734.

PERSPECTIVE

This prospective observational study provides the incidence rate of N-PSPP occurring within the 6 months after 9 types of elective surgical procedures. It highlights the possible consequences of nerve aggression during some common surgeries. Finally, some preoperative predispositions to the development of N-PSPP have been identified.

Entrapment neuropathies of the lower extremity

Neuropathies that affect the lower limbs are often encountered after trauma or iatrogenic injury or by entrapment at areas of anatomic restriction. Symptoms may initially be masked by concomitant trauma or recovery from surgical procedures. The nerves that serve the lower extremities arise from the lumbosacral plexus, formed by the L2-S2 nerve roots. The major nerves that supply the lower extremities are the femoral, obturator, lateral femoral cutaneous, and the peroneal (fibular) and tibial, which arise from the sciatic nerve, and the superior and inferior gluteal nerves. An understanding of the motor and sensory functions of these nerves is critical in recognizing and localizing nerve injury. Electrodiagnostic studies are an important diagnostic tool. A well-designed electromyography study can help confirm and localize a nerve lesion, assess severity, and evaluate for other peripheral nerve lesions, such as plexopathy or radiculopathy.

Categorizing the distribution of the saphenous nerve in relation to the great saphenous vein

Saphenous donor site neuralgia is a cause of morbidity post-coronary artery bypass surgery. Saphenous nerve damage during harvesting of the great saphenous vein is thought to be responsible. We dissected 37 cadaveric lower limbs from the knee fold to the dorsal venous arches, to study the spatial relations of the saphenous nerve and great saphenous vein to identify its distribution within the leg. Distribution of the saphenous nerve was categorized into Type A, where the nerve traveled inferiorly and split into an anterior and posterior branch during its course between the knee fold and medial malleolus, Type B, where the nerve traveled anterior to the vein with a small caliber branch traveling posteriorly at the proximal end, Type C where two main branches originated at the knee fold, one anterior to and one posterior to the vein. Overall the vein and nerve crossed in 27 out of the 37 cases (73%), occurring between 5 and 29 cm from the malleolus (60% occurred between 16 and 26 cm). In 32 (86%) of cases, the distal part of the nerve and vein were tightly adhered to each other within a common sheath. The length of adherence ranged from 3 to 26 cm with an average of 14 cm. The saphenous nerve is highly vulnerable during harvesting of the great saphenous vein due to its close relationship and crossing branches. Knowledge of the distribution categories of the nerve can help guide the surgeon to avoid damaging nerve branches during harvesting.

Postoperative and mid-term wound disturbance outcomes of minimally invasive saphenous vein harvest using the VEGA system

Great saphenous vein harvest is associated with a significant risk of impaired wound healing. The purpose of this study was to determine efficacy of one system designed for minimally invasive vein harvest (MIVH) and to assess postoperative and mid-term wound-healing disturbances. From February 2004 to June 2005, great saphenous harvest for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) was performed in a group of 120 consecutive patients employing the VEGA system (B/Braun-Aesculap, Tuttlingen, Germany). Patients were evaluated on 7th postoperative day, at the 3-month and 1-year follow-up for wound healing disturbances, residual leg edema, and saphenous neuropathy. The mean age was 67.3 years, male patients dominated (70%), and the leading procedure was CABG (83%). The mean number of harvested venous grafts was 1.9 +/- 1.2 and the mean number of skin incisions was 3.7 +/- 2.2. The mean total vein harvesting time was 40.2 +/- 16.8 minutes. Satisfactory healing was achieved in 98% patients on 7th postoperative day and at the 3-month follow-up all wounds were completely healed. Saphenous neuralgia remained a significant cause of morbidity, although its incidence decreased from 25% presented on 7th postoperative day to 8% presented at 1-year follow-up. Likewise, the incidence of leg edema decreased from 34% on the 7th postoperative day to 7% at 1-year follow-up. Minimally invasive vein harvest is a safe method associated with a significant reduction of wound disturbances. The VEGA system appears to be suitable and effective equipment for MIVH. Nevertheless, residual edema and mainly saphenous neuropathy represent a relatively frequent cause of patient morbidity at the postoperative and mid-term follow-up.

The Risk Factors Affecting the Complications of Saphenous Vein Graft Harvesting in Aortocoronary Bypass Surgery

Problems of wound healing are commonly observed after coronary bypass grafting (CABG) operations. Our aim is to determine the prevalence and the predictors of saphenous vein harvesting complications after coronary artery bypass surgery. One hundred twenty six patients operated in the specified period were included in this prospective study. In an early period 3 patients were excluded because of their mortality. Twenty patients were female and 103 were male. Forty three patients underwent an open procedure with one incision (35%), 61 patients also underwent an open procedure but with multiple incisions (49%), and 19 patients underwent a closed procedure with stripper (16%). Complications related with leg incisions after surgery were investigated. Multiple incision technique has the longest (49.28 +/- 14.7 cm; p < 0.001) total incision length (compare to single incision and stripper technique). As incision length increases, the incidence of drainage (p < 0.01), pain score (p < 0.05), hematoma (p < 0.05) and diffuse ecchymosis (p < 0.05) were increased. Drainage was seen more frequently in female (p < 0.001) and diabetic patients (p < 0.05). Sex (p < 0.001) and incision length (p < 0.05) have been found independent risk factors for drainage complication. Superficial infection (p < 0.05), pain (p < 0.05) and dehiscence (p < 0.05) were significantly higher in female patients. As the incision length of the multiple incision technique became longer, the risk of drainage, pain, hematoma and diffuse ecchymosis were increased. The significantly increased risk for wound complications were also seen in female gender, diabetic and obese patients.

The prevalence of chronic chest and leg pain following cardiac surgery: a historical cohort study

Chronic pain after surgery is recognised as an important post-operative complication; recent studies have shown up to 30% of patients reporting persistent pain following mastectomy and inguinal hernia repair. No large-scale studies have investigated the epidemiology of chronic pain at two operative sites following coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). This paper reports the follow-up of a cohort of 1348 patients who underwent cardiac surgery between 1996 and 2000 at one cardiothoracic unit in northeast Scotland. Chronic pain was defined as pain in the location of surgery, different from that suffered pre-operatively, arising post-operatively and persisting beyond 3 months. The survey questionnaire consisted of the short-form-36 (SF-36), Rose angina questionnaire, McGill pain questionnaire and the University of California and San Francisco (UCSF) pain service questionnaire. Of the 1080 responders, 130 reported chronic chest pain, 100 chronic post-saphenectomy pain and 194 reported pain at both surgical sites. The cumulative prevalence of post-cardiac surgery pain was 39.3% (CI(95) 36.4-42.2%) and mean time of 28 months since surgery (SD 15.3 months). Patients who reported pain at both sites had lower quality of life scores across all eight health domains compared to patients with pain at one site only and those who were pain-free. Prevalence of chronic pain decreased with age, from 55% in those aged under 60 years to 34% in patients over 70 years. Patients with pre-operative angina and those who were overweight or obese (BMI>/=25) at the time of surgery were more likely to report chronic pain. Chronic pain following median sternotomy and saphenous vein harvesting is more common than hitherto reported and that patients undergoing CABG should be warned of this possibility.

Saphenous neuralgia after coronary artery bypass grafting

OBJECTIVE

To determine the incidence, extent and site of saphenous neuralgia (anaesthesia, hyperaesthesia and pain) in the lower limb after harvesting of great saphenous vein (GSV) for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG).

METHODS

Thirty-two consecutive patients (39 lower limbs) aged 58+/-16 years undergoing CABG were prospectively reviewed. All patients were assessed pre-operatively to establish the presence of normal sensation, then at 3 days, 6 weeks and 20+/-4 months post-operatively for symptoms or signs of saphenous neuralgia. The data were recorded on serial diagrammatic representations, and the area of sensory loss for each site was recorded at each review. The decrease in areas of sensory loss over time was investigated with statistical analysis.

RESULTS

Thirty-five (90%) of the lower limbs examined showed some degree of anaesthesia at 3 days with 23 (72%) still symptomatic at a mean follow up of 20 months. Hyperaesthesia and pain were infrequently noted. Anaesthesia was generally confined to three main areas, which were denoted sites A, B and C for descriptive purposes. The mean area of sensory loss in the lower limb at 3 days post-surgery was 53.4 cm2, for an incision of mean length 42+/-22 cm from the medial malleolus. This area reduced to 31.7 cm2 by 20 months, and the decrease in area over time for each site was found to be statistically significant using analysis of variance for repeated measures and the Freidman-Rubin test.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that saphenous neuralgia after harvest of GSV for CABG is common. The main symptom is anaesthesia and certain areas may persist for some considerable time post-operatively.

Femoral and obturator neuropathies

Femoral, saphenous, and obturator neuropathies have diverse causes, many of which are iatrogenic. They have overlapping, but distinct, clinical features. Electrodiagnostic testing can distinguish between these disorders and others in the differential diagnosis. Imaging studies may demonstrate the origin of the neuropathy in some cases. Conservative treatment is usually sufficient, but occasionally surgical exploration of the affected nerve is indicated.