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Filippidis FT, Driezen P, Kyriakos CN, Katsaounou P, Petroulia I, Girvalaki C, Fu M, Fernández E, Mons U, Trofor AC, Demjén T, Przewoźniak K, Zatoński WA, Fong GT, Tountas Y, Vardavas CI. Transitions from and to roll-your-own tobacco, perceptions and health beliefs among smokers: findings from the EUREST-PLUS ITC Europe Surveys. Eur J Public Health 2020; 30:iii18-iii25. [PMID: 32267933 PMCID: PMC7526787 DOI: 10.1093/eurpub/ckz214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prevalence of roll-your-own tobacco (RYO) in Europe has been increasing. The aim of this study was to investigate transitions between factory-made (FM) cigarettes and RYO in a longitudinal sample of European smokers, and their perceptions of relative harmfulness and knowledge of health effects. METHODS We used data collected from the EUREST-PLUS ITC 6 European Country (6E) Surveys in 2016 (n = 6011 smokers) and in 2018 (n = 6027) in Germany, Greece, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Spain. A total of 3195 cohort respondents were interviewed in both years. Use of RYO and FM, knowledge of health effects of smoking as well as perceptions about RYO were assessed. We used logistic regression models to explore sociodemographic correlates of transitions from one product to the other, of perceptions and knowledge related to smoking health effects. RESULTS Approximately 7.4% of exclusive FM smokers transitioned to RYO and 29.5% of exclusive RYO smokers transitioned to FM cigarettes from 2016 to 2018. RYO use in 2018 was more frequent among smokers of low education and income, but none of these factors were associated with transitions. Most RYO smokers perceived RYO as cheaper than FM and 21.7% of them considered RYO to be less harmful than FM. Knowledge of the health effects of smoking was not associated with type of product smoked. CONCLUSIONS RYO is popular among European smokers; its lower cost seems to be a major factor for RYO users; reasons for transitions to and from RYO are less clear and need to be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippos T Filippidis
- Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College, London, UK
- Center for Health Services Research, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Pete Driezen
- Department of Psychology and School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
| | - Christina N Kyriakos
- European Network for Smoking and Tobacco Prevention, Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Paraskevi Katsaounou
- Center for Health Services Research, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- First ICU Evaggelismos Hospital Athens, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Ioanna Petroulia
- Center for Health Services Research, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Charis Girvalaki
- Laboratory of Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Marcela Fu
- Tobacco Control Unit, Catalan Institute of Oncology (ICO), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Catalonia
- Tobacco Control Research Group, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Catalonia
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, Universitat de Barcelona, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Catalonia
- Consortium for Biomedical Research in Respiratory Diseases (CIBER of Respiratory Diseases, CIBERES), Madrid, Spain
| | - Esteve Fernández
- Tobacco Control Unit, Catalan Institute of Oncology (ICO), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Catalonia
- Tobacco Control Research Group, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Catalonia
- School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, Universitat de Barcelona, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Catalonia
- Consortium for Biomedical Research in Respiratory Diseases (CIBER of Respiratory Diseases, CIBERES), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ute Mons
- Cancer Prevention Unit and WHO Collaborating Centre for Tobacco Control, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Antigona C Trofor
- University of Medicine and Pharmacy ‘Grigore T. Popa’ Iasi, Iasi, Romania
- Aer Pur Romania, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Tibor Demjén
- Smoking or Health Hungarian Foundation, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Krzysztof Przewoźniak
- Health Promotion Foundation, Warsaw, Poland
- Maria Skłodowska-Curie National Research Institute of Oncology, Warsaw, Poland
- Collegium Civitas, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Witold A Zatoński
- Health Promotion Foundation, Warsaw, Poland
- European Observatory of Health Inequalities, President Stanisław Wojciechowski State University of Applied Sciences, Kalisz, Poland
| | - Geoffrey T Fong
- Department of Psychology and School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
- Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Canada
| | - Yannis Tountas
- Center for Health Services Research, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Constantine I Vardavas
- European Network for Smoking and Tobacco Prevention, Brussels, Belgium
- Laboratory of Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
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Partos TR, Hiscock R, Gilmore AB, Branston JR, Hitchman S, McNeill A. Impact of tobacco tax increases and industry pricing on smoking behaviours and inequalities: a mixed-methods study. PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH 2020. [DOI: 10.3310/phr08060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background
Increasing tobacco prices through taxation is very effective for reducing smoking prevalence and inequalities. For optimum effect, understanding how the tobacco industry and smokers respond is essential. Tobacco taxation changes occurred in the UK over the study period, including annual increases, a shift in structure from ad valorem to specific taxation and relatively higher increases on roll-your-own tobacco than on factory-made cigarettes.
Objectives
Understanding tobacco industry pricing strategies in response to tax changes and the impact of tax on smokers’ behaviour, including tax evasion and avoidance, as well as the effect on smoking inequalities. Synthesising findings to inform how taxation can be improved as a public health intervention.
Design
Qualitative analysis and evidence synthesis (commercial and Nielsen data) and longitudinal and aggregate cross-sectional analyses (International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Project data).
Setting
The UK, from 2002 to 2016.
Data sources and participants
Data were from the tobacco industry commercial literature and retail tobacco sales data (Nielsen, New York, NY, USA). Participants were a longitudinal cohort (with replenishment) of smokers and ex-smokers from 10 surveys of the International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Project (around 1500 participants per survey).
Main outcome measures
(1) Tobacco industry pricing strategies, (2) sales volumes and prices by segments over time and (3) smokers’ behaviours, including products purchased, sources, brands, consumption, quit attempts, success and sociodemographic differences.
Review methods
Tobacco industry commercial literature was searched for mentions of tobacco products and price segments, with 517 articles extracted.
Results
The tobacco industry increased prices on top of tax increases (overshifting), particularly on premium products, and, recently, the tobacco industry overshifted more on cheap roll-your-own tobacco than on factory-made cigarettes. Increasingly, price rises were from industry revenue generation rather than tax. The tobacco industry raised prices gradually to soften impact; this was less possible with larger tax increases. Budget measures to reduce cheap product availability failed due to new cheap factory-made products, price marking and small packs. In 2014, smokers could buy factory-made (roll-your-own tobacco) cigarettes at real prices similar to 2002. Exclusive roll-your-own tobacco and mixed factory-made cigarettes and roll-your-own tobacco use increased, whereas exclusive factory-made cigarette use decreased, alongside increased cheap product use, rather than quitting. Quitting behaviours were associated with higher taxes. Smokers consumed fewer factory-made cigarettes and reduced roll-your-own tobacco weight over time. Apparent illicit purchasing did not increase. Disadvantaged and dependent smokers struggled with tobacco affordability and were more likely to smoke cheaper products, but disadvantage did not affect quit success.
Limitations
Different for each data set; triangulation increased confidence.
Conclusions
The tobacco industry overshifted taxes and increased revenues, even when tax increases were high. Therefore, tobacco taxes can be further increased to reduce price differentials and recoup public health costs. Government strategies on illicit tobacco appear effective. Large, sudden tax increases would reduce the industry’s ability to manipulate prices, decrease affordability and increase quitting behaviours. More disadvantaged, and dependent, smokers need more help with quitting.
Future work
Assessing the impact of tax changes made since 2014; changing how tax changes are introduced (e.g. sudden intermittent or smaller continuous); and tax changes on tobacco initiation.
Funding
This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme and will be published in full in Public Health Research; Vol. 8, No. 6. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timea R Partos
- National Addiction Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | | | | | - J Robert Branston
- Centre for Governance and Regulation, School of Management, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Sara Hitchman
- National Addiction Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Ann McNeill
- National Addiction Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
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Kuipers MA, Partos T, McNeill A, Beard E, Gilmore AB, West R, Brown J. Smokers' strategies across social grades to minimise the cost of smoking in a period with annual tax increases: evidence from a national survey in England. BMJ Open 2019; 9:e026320. [PMID: 31243031 PMCID: PMC6597620 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess associations between smokers' strategies to minimise how much their smoking costs and cost of smoking among smokers across three social grades during a period of annual tax increases in England. DESIGN Repeat cross-sectional. SETTING England, May 2012-December 2016. PARTICIPANTS 16 967 adult smokers in 56 monthly surveys with nationally representative samples. MEASURES AND ANALYSIS Weighted generalised additive models assessed associations between four cost-minimising strategies (factory-made and roll-your-own (RYO) cigarette consumption levels, illicit and cross-border purchases) and cost of smoking (£/week). We adjusted for inflation rate, age, gender and secular and seasonal trends. RESULTS Cost of smoking did not increase above the rate of inflation. Factory-made cigarette consumption decreased, while proportion of RYO and, to a much lesser extent, illicit and cross-border purchases increased. These trends were only evident in lowest social grade. Cost of smoking was 12.99% lower with consumption of 10 fewer factory-made cigarettes (95% CI -13.18 to -12.80) and 5.86% lower with consumption of 10 fewer RYO cigarettes (95% CI -5.66 to -6.06). Consumption levels accounted for 60% of variance in cost. Cross-border and illicit tobacco purchases were associated with 9.64% (95% CI -12.94 to -6.33) and 9.47% (95% CI -12.74 to -6.20) lower costs, respectively, but due to low prevalence, accounted for only 0.2% of variation. Associations were similar across social grades, although weaker for illicit and cross-border purchases and stronger for consumption in higher social grades compared with lower social grades. CONCLUSION During a period of annual tax increases, the weekly cost of smoking did not increase above inflation. Cost-minimising strategies increased, especially among more disadvantaged smokers. Reducing cigarette consumption and switching to RYO tobacco explained a large part of cost variation, while use of illicit and cross-border purchasing played only a minor role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirte Ag Kuipers
- Department of Public Health, Amsterdam Public Health research institute, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Behavioural Science and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Timea Partos
- Department of Addictions, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ann McNeill
- Department of Addictions, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Emma Beard
- Department of Behavioural Science and Health, University College London, London, UK
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Anna B Gilmore
- Tobacco Control Research Group, Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Robert West
- Department of Behavioural Science and Health, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jamie Brown
- Department of Behavioural Science and Health, University College London, London, UK
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
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Huang J, Gwarnicki C, Xu X, Caraballo RS, Wada R, Chaloupka FJ. A comprehensive examination of own- and cross-price elasticities of tobacco and nicotine replacement products in the U.S. Prev Med 2018; 117:107-114. [PMID: 29684418 PMCID: PMC6195827 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
While much is known about the demand for cigarettes, research on the demand for non-cigarette tobacco products and the cross-price impacts among those products is limited. This study aims to comprehensively examine the own- and cross-price elasticities of demand for tobacco and nicotine replacement products (NRPs) in the U.S. We analyzed market-level quarterly data on sales and prices of 15 different types of tobacco products and NRPs from 2007 to 2014, compiled from retail store scanner data. Fixed effects models with controls were used to estimate their own-price elasticities and cross-price elasticities between cigarettes and the other 14 products. Our results show that, except for cigars, the demand for combustible tobacco products was generally elastic, with the estimated own-price elasticity >1 (10% increase in prices reduces sales by >10%). The own-price elasticities for smokeless tobacco products were smaller than those for combustible tobacco, although not always significant. The demand for electronic cigarettes and NRPs was found to be elastic. The cross-price elasticities with respect to cigarettes were positive for cigarillos, little cigars, loose tobacco, pipe tobacco, electronic cigarettes and NRPs, but only results for little cigars, loose tobacco, pipe tobacco, and dissolvable lozenges were consistently significant. Our findings suggest demand for tobacco products and NRPs was responsive to changes in their own prices. Substitutions or positive cross-price impacts between cigarettes and certain other products exist. It is important that tobacco control policies take into account both own- and cross-price impacts among tobacco products and NRTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jidong Huang
- School of Public Health, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Cezary Gwarnicki
- Economics Department, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Xin Xu
- Office on Smoking and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ralph S Caraballo
- Office on Smoking and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Roy Wada
- Institute for Health Research and Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Frank J Chaloupka
- Institute for Health Research and Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA; School of Public Health, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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Bayly M, Scollo MM, Wakefield MA. Who uses rollies? Trends in product offerings, price and use of roll-your-own tobacco in Australia. Tob Control 2018; 28:317-324. [DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2018-054334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
ObjectiveWe examined the roll-your-own (RYO) tobacco product market in Australia from 2001 to 2016. Trends in use of RYO tobacco among Australian adults were examined for 2004–2016.MethodsChanges in brand availability, pouch sizes and lowest priced products were noted from trade magazines. Prevalence of smoking of RYO and factory-made (FM) cigarettes among those 18 years and older was obtained from five consecutive waves of a large (n>21 000) nationally representative triennial survey from 2004 to 2016. Trends in cigarette use were examined using logistic regression.ResultsChanges in the Australian RYO market from 2001 to 2016 included a doubling in the number of brands, progressively smaller pouch sizes with smaller increases in price than in traditional RYO and comparable FM products. While use of FM cigarettes declined between 2004 and 2016, the proportion of adults exclusively using RYO tobacco linearly increased with each survey wave (OR 1.03, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.05, p<0.001), from 1.2% in 2004 to 1.7% in 2016. Exclusive RYO use among current smokers increased more among females than males, and young adults compared with those aged 30 years or older, but did not differ by socioeconomic status.ConclusionsIn contrast to substantial declines in FM cigarette use, exclusive use of RYO cigarettes increased in Australians since 2004, particularly among females and young adults. This has corresponded to a period of substantial changes to the RYO market, including progressively smaller and relatively more affordable products. Policy action to reduce price-related marketing and correct consumer misinformation about RYO tobacco are urgently required.
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Stoklosa M, Goma F, Nargis N, Drope J, Chelwa G, Chisha Z, Fong GT. Price, tax and tobacco product substitution in Zambia: findings from the ITC Zambia Surveys. Tob Control 2018; 28:s45-s52. [PMID: 29574449 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-054037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2017] [Revised: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Zambia, the number of cigarette users is growing, and the lack of strong tax policies is likely an important cause. When adjusted for inflation, levels of tobacco tax have not changed since 2007. Moreover, roll-your-own (RYO) tobacco, a less-costly alternative to factory-made (FM) cigarettes, is highly prevalent. DATA AND METHODS We modelled the probability of FM and RYO cigarette smoking using individual-level data obtained from the 2012 and 2014 waves of the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Zambia Survey. We used two estimation methods: the standard estimation method involving separate random effects probit models and a method involving a system of equations (incorporating bivariate seemingly unrelated random effects probit) to estimate price elasticities of FM and RYO cigarettes and their cross-price elasticities. RESULTS The estimated price elasticities of smoking prevalence are -0.20 and -0.03 for FM and RYO cigarettes, respectively. FM and RYO are substitutes; that is, when the price of one of the products goes up, some smokers switch to the other product. The effects are stronger for substitution from FM to RYO than vice versa. CONCLUSIONS This study affirms that increasing cigarette tax with corresponding price increases could significantly reduce cigarette use in Zambia. Furthermore, reducing between-product price differences would reduce substitution from FM to RYO. Since RYO use is associated with lower socioeconomic status, efforts to decrease RYO use, including through tax/price approaches and cessation assistance, would decrease health inequalities in Zambian society and reduce the negative economic consequences of tobacco use experienced by the poor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Stoklosa
- Economic and Health Policy Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Fastone Goma
- School of Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Nigar Nargis
- Economic and Health Policy Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Jeffrey Drope
- Economic and Health Policy Research, American Cancer Society, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Grieve Chelwa
- Graduate School of Business, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Zunda Chisha
- School of Economics, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Geoffrey T Fong
- Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.,School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.,Ontario Institute for Cancer Research, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Jawad M, Lee JT, Glantz S, Millett C. Price elasticity of demand of non-cigarette tobacco products: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Tob Control 2018; 27:689-695. [PMID: 29363611 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-054056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To systematically review the price elasticity of demand of non-cigarette tobacco products. DATA SOURCES Medline, Embase, EconLit and the Web of Science without language or time restrictions. STUDY SELECTION Two reviewers screened title and abstracts, then full texts, independently and in duplicate. We based eligibility criteria on study design (interventional or observational), population (individuals or communities without geographic restrictions), intervention (price change) and outcome (change in demand). DATA EXTRACTION We abstracted data on study features, outcome measures, statistical approach, and single best own- and cross-price elasticity estimates with respect to cigarettes. We conducted a random effects meta-analysis for estimates of similar product, outcome and country income level. For other studies we reported median elasticities by product and country income level. DATA SYNTHESIS We analysed 36 studies from 15 countries yielding 125 elasticity estimates. A 10% price increase would reduce demand by: 8.3% for cigars (95% CI 2.9 to 13.8), 6.4% for roll your owns (95% CI 4.3 to 8.4), 5.7% for bidis (95% CI 4.3 to 7.1) and 2.1% for smokeless tobacco (95% CI -0.6 to 4.8). Median price elasticities for all ten products were also negative. Results from few studies that examined cross-price elasticity suggested a positive substitution effect between cigarette and non-cigarette tobacco products. CONCLUSIONS There is sufficient evidence in support of the effectiveness of price increases to reduce consumption of non-cigarette tobacco products as it is for cigarettes. Positive substitutability between cigarette and non-cigarette tobacco products suggest that tax and price increases need to be simultaneous and comparable across all tobacco products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Jawad
- Public Health Policy Evaluation Unit, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - John Tayu Lee
- Public Health Policy Evaluation Unit, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stanton Glantz
- Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
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Hiscock R, Branston JR, McNeill A, Hitchman SC, Partos TR, Gilmore AB. Tobacco industry strategies undermine government tax policy: evidence from commercial data. Tob Control 2017; 27:tobaccocontrol-2017-053891. [PMID: 28993519 PMCID: PMC6109235 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2017-053891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Taxation equitably reduces smoking, the leading cause of health inequalities. The tobacco industry (TI) can, however, undermine the public health gains realised from tobacco taxation through its pricing strategies. This study aims to examine contemporary TI pricing strategies in the UK and implications for tobacco tax policy. DESIGN Review of commercial literature and longitudinal analysis of tobacco sales and price data. SETTING A high-income country with comprehensive tobacco control policies and high tobacco taxes (UK). PARTICIPANTS 2009 to 2015 Nielsen Scantrak electronic point of sale systems data. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Tobacco segmentation; monthly prices, sales volumes of and net revenue from roll-your-own (RYO) and factory-made (FM) cigarettes by segment; use of price-marking and pack sizes. RESULTS The literature review and sales data concurred that both RYO and FM cigarettes were segmented by price. Despite regular tax increases, average real prices for the cheapest FM and RYO segments remained steady from 2013 while volumes grew. Low prices were maintained through reductions in the size of packs and price-marking. Each year, at the point the budget is implemented, the TI drops its revenue by up to 18 pence per pack, absorbing the tax increases (undershifting). Undershifting is most marked for the cheapest segments. CONCLUSIONS The TI currently uses a variety of strategies to keep tobacco cheap. The implementation of standardised packaging will prevent small pack sizes and price-marking but further changes in tax policy are needed to minimise the TI's attempts to prevent sudden price increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosemary Hiscock
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
- UK Centre for Tobacco & Alcohol Studies, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | | | - Ann McNeill
- UK Centre for Tobacco & Alcohol Studies, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Sara C Hitchman
- UK Centre for Tobacco & Alcohol Studies, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Timea R Partos
- UK Centre for Tobacco & Alcohol Studies, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Anna B Gilmore
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
- UK Centre for Tobacco & Alcohol Studies, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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