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Iwashita H, Sebbag L, Leonard BC, Saito A. A review of diagnostic tests for qualitative and quantitative tear film deficiency in dogs. Vet Ophthalmol 2022; 26 Suppl 1:5-15. [PMID: 36575128 DOI: 10.1111/vop.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Dry eye disease (DED) is a complex multifactorial condition caused by loss of ocular surface homeostasis from quantitative and/or qualitative tear film deficiency. Schirmer tear test (STT) is often the only diagnostic test used to assess for DED in veterinary practice. STT is invaluable in the diagnosis and monitoring of quantitative tear film deficiency (i.e., keratoconjunctivitis sicca); however, it is not sufficient to optimize therapy and fully recognize other contributing factors for the disturbance in ocular surface homeostasis. The present work reviews diagnostic tests for assessing aqueous tear production in veterinary medicine, as well as the quality of tears, corneal epithelial barrier integrity, and the lacrimal functional unit.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lionel Sebbag
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Brian C Leonard
- Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, California, USA
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Influence of anesthetics on aqueous tear production in dogs: A systematic review. Vet Anaesth Analg 2022; 49:525-535. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2022.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Evaluation of Tear Production as Measured by Schirmer Test I in Dogs after Acepromazine and Acepromazine-Methadone Premedication. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11113015. [PMID: 34827748 PMCID: PMC8614281 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Different sedatives and anesthetic drugs have been reported to cause adverse ocular side effects, such as an exposure keratopathy due to loss of eyelid reflex, lagophthalmos, reduced stability of the tear film and decreased basal tear production. In the present study, the effects of two sedation protocols, acepromazine (ACP) and acepromazine–methadone (ACP–MET) combination, on tear production measured by the Schirmer Tear Test (STT) 1 on canine eyes were investigated, hypothesizing that both sedation protocols cause a reduction in canine tear production for a variable time. A significant decrease in tear production until 2 h after drug administration compared to basal tear values was observed in the ACP experimental protocol, while in the ACP + MET protocol, this reduction persisted until 8 h. In the ACP + MET group, after 40 min, 100% of dogs showed STT 1 readings lower than 15 mm/min, which could predispose them to corneal injuries. The major reduction in tear production due to the ACP + MET protocol proves the need for adequate corneal hydration, particularly to discourage its use in animals with altered tear production. Abstract The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of two commonly used sedation protocols in dogs, acepromazine (ACP) and acepromazine–methadone (ACP–MET) combination, on tear production measured by the Schirmer Tear Test (STT) 1. We hypothesized that both sedation protocols cause a reduction in canine tear production for a variable time. Fifteen client-owned dogs were recruited for the study. Each dog was subjected to sedation twice, 2–3 weeks apart, and they were randomly allocated to one of two groups receiving ACP (0.015 mg kg−1) or ACP–MET (0.010 mg kg−1 and 0.2 mg kg−1) intramuscularly. In both eyes, tear production was measured 15 min before sedation (T0) and 20 min (T20 m), 40 min (T40 m), 1 h (T1), 2 h (T2), 4 h (T4) and 8 h (T8), after drug administration. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA, followed by the Bonferroni post hoc test (p < 0.05), showed a significant effect of time (p < 0.0001) and treatment (p < 0.0001). A significant decrease in tear production at T20 m, T40 m, T1 and T2 compared to T0 was observed in the ACP experimental protocol, while in the ACP + MET protocol, this reduction persisted until T8. Comparing the two experimental protocols, no statistically significant differences were observed at T0 or T20 m, and STT 1 values were statistically lower in the ACP + MET than the ACP protocol at the other data points. In the ACP + MET group, at T40 m, 100% of dogs showed STT 1 readings lower than 15 mm/min. This finding is clinically relevant as it can predispose dogs to corneal injuries. The major reduction in tear production due to the ACP + MET protocol proves the need for adequate corneal hydration, particularly to discourage its use in animals with altered tear production. The data obtained provide important information helping clinicians to better manage the drug’s effects on tear production.
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Di Pietro S, Giannetto C, Falcone A, Piccione G, Congiu F, Staffieri F, Giudice E. Dexmedetomidine and Tear Production: Evaluation in Dogs as Spontaneous Model for Ocular Surface Disorders. Vet Sci 2021; 8:vetsci8020028. [PMID: 33669215 PMCID: PMC7919802 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8020028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The general anesthesia or sedation reduces both the tear production and the stability of tear film that protect corneal surface, predisposing itself to the exposure keratopathy. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of intramuscular dexmedetomidine (DEX) on canine tear production, measured by standardized Schirmer Tear Test 1 (STT-1) strips, for the 8 h following sedation, in dogs. A significant effect of time on canine tear production was found, highlighting that dexmedetomidine sedative protocol significantly affects tear production in dogs. It is recommended to treat the canine eyes with tear substitutes to protect ocular surface health and the welfare of the dogs. The ocular lubrication should be performed during and up to 12 h after sedation. The present report could provide preliminary information to better understand the effect of DEX on the tear film dynamics. Abstract Tear film provides lubrication and protection to the ocular surface. The sedation reduces tear production, often leading to perioperative exposure keratopathy. The aim of the present study was to report the effects of intramuscular dexmedetomidine on canine tear production, measured by STT-1, for an experimental period of 8 h after sedation. Ten dogs who underwent sedation for routine radiologic assessment were recruited for the study. In all animals, tear production in right and left eyes was measured 15 min before sedation (T0: basal values) and 20 min (T20), 1 h (T1), 2 h (T2), 4 h (T4) and 8 h (T8) after drug administration. Analysis of variance and post hoc Bonferroni test (p < 0.05) were performed. A significant effect of time on canine tear production was found. The tear production returned to basal values at T8. So, it is recommended to treat the canine eyes with tear substitutes during and up to 12 h after sedation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Di Pietro
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 98168 Messina, Italy; (C.G.); (A.F.); (G.P.); (F.C.); (E.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0906-766-758; Fax: +39-0906-766-979
| | - Claudia Giannetto
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 98168 Messina, Italy; (C.G.); (A.F.); (G.P.); (F.C.); (E.G.)
| | - Annastella Falcone
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 98168 Messina, Italy; (C.G.); (A.F.); (G.P.); (F.C.); (E.G.)
| | - Giuseppe Piccione
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 98168 Messina, Italy; (C.G.); (A.F.); (G.P.); (F.C.); (E.G.)
| | - Fulvio Congiu
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 98168 Messina, Italy; (C.G.); (A.F.); (G.P.); (F.C.); (E.G.)
| | - Francesco Staffieri
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation, University of Bari, 70124 Bari, Italy;
| | - Elisabetta Giudice
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 98168 Messina, Italy; (C.G.); (A.F.); (G.P.); (F.C.); (E.G.)
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Schirmer Tear Test Value and Corneal Lesions' Incidence during General Anesthesia for Non-Ophthalmic Surgery in Non-Brachycephalic Dogs: A Pilot Study Comparing Three Different Lubricant Eye Drop Formulations. Vet Sci 2020; 7:vetsci7010025. [PMID: 32085462 PMCID: PMC7158676 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci7010025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim of this blinded, prospective, randomized clinical study was to compare three different lubricant eye drops (LED) in healthy adult dogs undergoing general anaesthesia (GA) for non-ophthalmic surgery. Tear production rate was monitored by means of Schirmer tear test-1 (STT-1), and incidence of post-operative corneal abrasions/ulcerations was detected by corneal staining. A complete ophthalmic examination was performed before premedication, at extubation time and 24 h after GA in twenty-five non-brachycephalic dogs (fifty eyes) undergoing elective orthopaedic or spinal surgery procedures. Dogs were randomly allocated to one of three groups receiving as prophylactic LED either carmellose sodium (GC), or 1% hyaluronic acid (GH), or 0.25% hyaluronic acid (GL). In each eye STT-1 was repeated every hour during GA, before instilling one drop of the assigned LED. In all groups STT-1 values drastically decreased during GA, while 24 h later nine eyes (18%) had STT-1 values lower than 15 mm/minute. All of the three formulations tested were fully effective in preventing corneal ulceration (0% in all groups), while 10% of eyes reported superficial de-epithelialization. Fluorescein staining demonstrated that hourly prophylactic LED application prevented exposure keratopathy during general anesthesia in 90% of the eyes in non-brachycephalic dogs.
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Carvalho CM, Rodarte-Almeida ACV, Beanes AS, Machado MTS, Galera PD. Ophthalmic contributions to assessing eyes of two neotropical canids: Cerdocyon thous and Chrysocyon brachyurus. Vet Ophthalmol 2020; 23:460-471. [PMID: 31961037 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe selected ophthalmic tests and anatomical features of eyes of crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous) and maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus). ANIMALS STUDIED Six crab-eating foxes (12 eyes), eight maned wolves (16 eyes). PROCEDURES Intramuscular and/or inhalatory anesthesia, ophthalmic evaluation with portable slit-lamp biomicroscope, Schirmer tear test (STT), intraocular pressure measurement with rebound and applanation (crab-eating fox only) tonometers, measurement of palpebral fissure length (PFL), gonioscopy, and fundoscopy. Data were analyzed with ANOVA and Tukey's tests. RESULTS Both species presented upper and lower eyelids, both with eyelashes and Meibomian glands openings. A third eyelid was also present. In partial miosis, pigmented projections were observed along the edge of the pupil. The draining angle was open, with thin pectinate ligaments. The retina was holangiotic. For crab-eating foxes, mean ± standard deviation values were as follows: STT: 4.33 ± 2.96 mm/min; PFL: 17.45 ± 1.55 mm; rebound tonometry: 10.70 ± 3.43 mm Hg (TonoVet® calibration D),5.66 ± 3.44 mm Hg (TonoVet® calibration P), 17.00 ± 4.64 mm Hg (TonoVet® Plus calibration dog); and applanation tonometry: 11.70 ± 5.70 mm Hg(TonoPen® XL). For maned wolves, the mean ± standard deviation values were as follows: STT: 9.31 ± 7.40 mm/min; PFL: 22.79 ± 1.63 mm; rebound tonometry: 11.00 ± 2.77 mm Hg (TonoVet® calibration D), 6.78 ± 2.58 mm Hg (TonoVet® calibration P), and 18.29 ± 3.47 mm Hg(TonoVet® Plus calibration dog). CONCLUSIONS This study contributes with knowledge that can help the clinical assessment regarding eyes of crab-eating foxes and maned wolves. The data herein presented for rebound tonometry are new for both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa M Carvalho
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | | | - Alan S Beanes
- Fundação Jardim Zoológico de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Marilia T S Machado
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Sustentável, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Paula D Galera
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, Brazil
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Mayordomo-Febrer A, Rubio M, Martínez-Gassent M, López-Murcia MM. Effects of morphine-alfaxalone-midazolam premedication, alfaxalone induction and sevoflurane maintenance on intraocular pressure and tear production in dogs. Vet Rec 2017; 180:474. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.104040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Mayordomo-Febrer
- Departamento de Medicina y Cirugía Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria; Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera; Alfara del Patriarca Valencia 46115 España
| | - M. Rubio
- Departamento de Medicina y Cirugía Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria; Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera; Alfara del Patriarca Valencia 46115 España
- Garcia Cugat Foundation, CEU-UCH Chair of Medicine and Regenerative Surgery, Facultad de Veterinaria; Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera; Alfara del Patriarca Valencia 46115 España
| | - M. Martínez-Gassent
- Departamento de Medicina y Cirugía Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria; Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera; Alfara del Patriarca Valencia 46115 España
| | - M. M. López-Murcia
- Departamento de Medicina y Cirugía Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria; Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera; Alfara del Patriarca Valencia 46115 España
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Kanda T, Ishihara S, Oka M, Sako K, Sato Y, Maeta N, Tamura K, Furumoto K, Furukawa T. Temporal effects of intramuscular administration of medetomidine hydrochloride or xylazine hydrochloride to healthy dogs on tear flow measured by use of a Schirmer tear test I. Am J Vet Res 2016; 77:346-50. [PMID: 27027832 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.77.4.346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the temporal effects on tear flow measurements obtained by use of a Schirmer tear test (STT) I after IM administration of various doses of medetomidine or xylazine to healthy dogs. ANIMALS 5 healthy purpose-bred male Beagles. PROCEDURES Each dog received IM injections of 2.0 mL of physiologic saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (control treatment); 0.1% medetomidine hydrochloride (5, 10, 20, and 40 μg/kg), and 2.0% xylazine hydrochloride (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mg/kg). Treatments were injected into the semimembranosus muscles; there was at least a 1-week interval between successive injections. Order of treatments was determined via a randomized Latin square crossover design. The STT I was performed on both eyes before (baseline) and 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 24 hours after each injection. RESULTS STT I values decreased significantly within 45 minutes after injection of medetomidine or xylazine, which was followed by gradual recovery. The lowest mean STT I value was < 10 mm/min for all sedation treatments, except when dogs received 5 μg of medetomidine/kg. Linear regression of the area under the curve for the 8 hours after administration yielded significant effects for all sedation treatments. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE IM administration of medetomidine or xylazine to dogs reduced tear flow in a dose-related manner. Artificial tear solution or ophthalmic ointment should be used to protect the ocular surface when these drugs are administered to dogs.
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Peche N, Köstlin R, Reese S, Pieper K. Postanaesthetic tear production and ocular irritation in cats. TIERAERZTLICHE PRAXIS AUSGABE KLEINTIERE HEIMTIERE 2015; 43:75-82. [PMID: 25599242 DOI: 10.15654/tpk-140182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE General anaesthesia significantly reduces tear production and normal values are not immediately re-established on ending anaesthesia. Therefore, adequate protection of the cornea has to be assured during the perianaesthetic period. There are various methods available, including taping of the eyelids and the application of eye ointments, gels and drops. In human medicine studies, different formulations were found to induce signs of ocular irritation. The aim of the present study was to determine tear production in cats after general anaesthesia, and to identify possible causes of irritation. MATERIAL AND METHODS Tear production was determined in 41 cats after general anaesthesia and eyes were examined for signs of irritation. Two different anaesthetic protocols were used. To protect the cornea, an ointment and gel were applied to the right and left eyes, respectively. RESULTS Postoperatively, tear production was significantly reduced for 6 hours and 18 hours in the right and left eyes, respectively. Two hours after anaesthesia, blepharospasm of the right eye was observed in 92.7% (n = 38) of the cats. In contrast, the left eye was always held open. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated that tear production in cats is significantly decreased both during and after anaesthesia. The degree of reduction was independent of the anaesthetic protocol. Both the eye ointment and gel proved effective in protecting the corneal surface. However, eye gel use is recommended because the eye ointment consistently caused an irritation comparable to the foreign-body sensation reported in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Peche
- Dr. Nina Peche, Klinik und Poliklinik für kleine Haustiere, Freie Universität Berlin, Oertzenweg 19b, 14163 Berlin, E-Mail:
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Yoo SH, Kim HA, Ahn SI, Kim SI, Chung JK. Comparison of Eye Protection Methods of Ointment Instillation under General Anesthesia. JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN OPHTHALMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 2015. [DOI: 10.3341/jkos.2015.56.7.1012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seung Hoon Yoo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Seoul Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyuna A Kim
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Bucheon Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Bucheon, Korea
| | - Sang Il Ahn
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan, Korea
| | - Soon Im Kim
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Soonchunhyang University Seoul Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jin Kwon Chung
- Department of Ophthalmology, Soonchunhyang University Seoul Hospital, Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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