Effects of ferulic acid on oxidative stress, heat shock protein 70, connexin 43, and monoamines in the hippocampus of pentylenetetrazole-kindled rats

Diet-gut microbiome interaction and ferulic acid bioavailability: implications on neurodegenerative disorders

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

Ferulic acid (FA), which occurs naturally as the feruloylated sugar ester in grains, fruits, and vegetables, is critical for combating oxidative stress and alleviating neurodegenerative diseases resulting from free radical-generated protein aggregates in brain cells. However, FA cannot be absorbed in conjugated form. Therefore, strategies to improve the bioavailability of FA are gaining more importance. Ferulic acid esterases (FAE) of the gut microbiota are critical enzymes that facilitate FA release from feruloylated sugar ester conjugates and influence systemic health. This review provides insight into a nutrition-based approach to preventing neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's by altering the diversity of FAE-producing gut microbiota.

RECENT FINDINGS

The human gut is a niche for a highly dense microbial population. Nutrient components and the quality of food shape the gut microbiota. Microbiota-diet-host interaction primarily involves an array of enzymes that hydrolyse complex polysaccharides and release covalently attached moieties, thereby increasing their bio-accessibility. Moreover, genes encoding polysaccharide degrading enzymes are substrate inducible, giving selective microorganisms a competitive advantage in scavenging nutrients. Nutraceutical therapy using specific food components holds promise as a prophylactic agent and as an adjunctive treatment strategy in neurotherapeutics, as it results in upregulation of polysaccharide utilisation loci containing fae genes in the gut microbiota, thereby increasing the release of FA and other antioxidant molecules and combat neurodegenerative processes.

Role of Impaired Astrocyte Gap Junction Coupling in Epileptogenesis

The gap-junction-coupled astroglial network plays a central role in the regulation of neuronal activity and synchronisation, but its involvement in the pathogenesis of neuronal diseases is not yet understood. Here, we present the current state of knowledge about the impact of impaired glial coupling in the development and progression of epilepsy and discuss whether astrocytes represent alternative therapeutic targets. We focus mainly on temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), which is the most common form of epilepsy in adults and is characterised by high therapy resistance. Functional data from TLE patients and corresponding experimental models point to a complete loss of astrocytic coupling, but preservation of the gap junction forming proteins connexin43 and connexin30 in hippocampal sclerosis. Several studies further indicate that astrocyte uncoupling is a causal event in the initiation of TLE, as it occurs very early in epileptogenesis, clearly preceding dysfunctional changes in neurons. However, more research is needed to fully understand the role of gap junction channels in epilepsy and to develop safe and effective therapeutic strategies targeting astrocytes.

Implication of nitrergic system in the anticonvulsant effects of ferulic acid in pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in male mice

OBJECTIVES

Seizures are abnormal discharge of neurons in the brain. Ferulic acid (FA) is a phenolic compound with antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. The present study aimed to investigate the role of the nitrergic system in the anticonvulsant effect of FA in pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizures in male mice.

METHODS

64 male Naval Medical Research Institute (NMRI) mice weighing 25-29 g were randomly divided into eight experimental groups (n=8). FA at doses 5, 10, and 40 mg/kg alone and in combination with L-nitro-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) (nitric oxide synthase inhibitor) or L-arginine (L-arg) (nitric oxide [NO] precursor) was administrated (intraperitoneal). PTZ was injected (i.v. route) 30 min after drugs administration (1 mL/min). Seizure onset time was recorded and the nitrite levels of prefrontal cortex and serum were determined by the Griess method.

RESULTS

FA at doses of 10 and 40 mg/kg significantly increased the seizure threshold as well as reduced the serum and brain NO levels in comparison to the saline-received group. Co-administration of the effective dose of FA (10 mg/kg) plus L-arg significantly decreased the seizure threshold in comparison to the effective dose of FA alone. Co-injection of the sub-effective dose of FA (5 mg/kg) with L-NAME significantly increased the seizure threshold as well as significantly decreased the brain NO level in comparison to the sub-effective dose of FA alone.

CONCLUSIONS

We showed that the nitrergic system, partially at least, mediated the anticonvulsant effect of FA in PTZ-induced seizures in mice. We concluded that L-NAME potentiated while L-arg attenuated the anticonvulsant effect of FA.

HPLC and GC-MS based metabolic profiles and in vivo anticonvulsant, sedative, and antinociceptive potentials of truffles Tirmania nivea and Tirmania pinoyi hydromethanolic extracts in mice

GC-MS and HPLC analyses of the hydromethanolic extracts of the truffles Tirmania nivea (TN) and Tirmania pinoyi (TP) revealed the presence of 18 metabolites and 11 polyphenols, respectively. In vivo, TP extract protected against subcutaneous pentylenetetrazole (scPTZ) and maximal electric shock (MES)-induced convulsions faster than TN. TP (100 and 300 mg/kg) showed 100% protection and longer duration than TN in the scPTZ test. Similarly, at 300 mg/kg, TP demonstrated a quicker start (75%) and longer duration of action (100%) than TN in MES test. In scPTZ test, ED₅₀ of TP demonstrated greater anticonvulsant efficacy than TN. In mice given TP and TN treatments, the brain GABA levels were noticeably increased. TP (100 and 300mg/kg) produced a notable sedative effect in open field test, whereas TN (100 or 300 mg/kg) and TP (300 mg/kg) reduced sleep latency by 79, 52, and 45%, respectively. In writhing test, TN (100 or 300mg/kg) significantly enhanced analgesic efficacy by 50 and 87%, respectively. Comparatively, in formalin test, TP and TN at a dosage of 300 mg/kg decreased the length of the licking by 34 and 59%, respectively. For the first time, this study explains the anticonvulsant, sedative, central, and peripheral analgesic activities of truffle extracts.

Potential Therapeutic Benefits of Honey in Neurological Disorders: The Role of Polyphenols

Honey is the principal premier product of beekeeping familiar to Homo for centuries. In every geological era and culture, evidence can be traced to the potential usefulness of honey in several ailments. With the advent of recent scientific approaches, honey has been proclaimed as a potent complementary and alternative medicine for the management and treatment of several maladies including various neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, Huntington’s disease, and multiple sclerosis, etc. In the literature archive, oxidative stress and the deprivation of antioxidants are believed to be the paramount cause of many of these neuropathies. Since different types of honey are abundant with certain antioxidants, primarily in the form of diverse polyphenols, honey is undoubtedly a strong pharmaceutic candidate against multiple neurological diseases. In this review, we have indexed and comprehended the involved mechanisms of various constituent polyphenols including different phenolic acids, flavonoids, and other phytochemicals that manifest multiple antioxidant effects in various neurological disorders. All these mechanistic interpretations of the nutritious components of honey explain and justify the potential recommendation of sweet nectar in ameliorating the burden of neurological disorders that have significantly increased across the world in the last few decades.

Nano-Hydrogel for the Treatment of Depression and Epilepsy

This article first combines nano-carrier technology, the electrophysiological mechanism of seizures, and brain targeting technology to prepare new nano-hydrogels. Secondly, through the discharge information generated during the seizure and the electric field responsiveness of the nano-hydrogel, the free drug concentration in the brain area related to the seizure is increased, thereby, limiting the abnormal discharge of the focus to the local area and suppressing it in time. Finally, this article examines the impact of nano-hydrogel on the epilepsy and depression using relevant studies. The experimental observations revealed that the yield of the nano-hydrogel synthesized after 24 h of sapon-free emulsion polymerization was 50 to 70%, the swelling rate was 400 to 1700%, and the viscosity of the 20 mg/mL nano-hydrogel dispersion was 3.9 to 17.0 mPa· s. Furthermore, because the total efficiency was 0.952, the nano-hydrogels have a reduced recurrence rate and a better effect on the depression improvement.

Novel doxorubicin / folate-targeted trans-ferulic acid-loaded PLGA nanoparticles combination: In-vivo superiority over standard chemotherapeutic regimen for breast cancer treatment

AIM

Doxorubicin/Cyclophosphamide (AC) is one of the standard adjuvant anthracycline-containing regimens that is still in use for breast cancer treatment. Cancer cell resistance and AC-induced side effects make treatment suboptimal and worsen patients' quality of life. This study aimed to improve trans-ferulic acid's (TFA) efficiency via loading into folate-receptor-targeted-poly lactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticles (FA-PLGA-TFA NPs). Also, investigating both the antitumor efficacy of Doxorubicin (Dox)/FA-PLGA-TFA NPs combination against dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced breast cancer and its safety profile.

METHODS

FA-PLGA-TFA NPs were optimally fabricated and characterized. Levels of Notch1, Hes1, Wnt-3a, β-catenin, MMP-9, cyclin D1, Permeability-Glycoprotein (P-gp), ERα, PR, and HER2 were assessed as a measure of the antitumor efficacy of different treatment protocols. Histopathological examination of heart and bone, levels of ALT, AST, ALP, CK-MB, and WBCs count were evaluated to ensure the combination's safety profile.

KEY FINDINGS

Dox/FA-PLGA-TFA NPs not only inhibited Notch signaling but also suppressed Notch synergy with Wnt, estrogen, progesterone, and HER2 pathways. Interestingly, Dox/FA-PLGA-TFA NPs decreased P-gp level and preserved heart, bone, and liver health as well as WBCs count.

SIGNIFICANCE

Dox/FA-PLGA-TFA NPs reduced the side-effects of each single drug, and at the same time exerted excellent antitumor activity that surpass the AC regimen in evading cancer cell resistance and having a superior safety profile.

Role of heat shock transcription factor 2 in the NMDA-dependent neuroplasticity induced by chronic ethanol intake in mouse hippocampus

Ethanol consumption impairs learning and memory through disturbances of NMDA-type glutamate receptor-dependent synaptic plasticity (long-term depression [LTD] and long-term potentiation [LTP]) in the hippocampus. Recently, we demonstrated that two ethanol binge-like episodes in young adult rats selectively blocked NMDA-LTD in hippocampal slices, increased NMDA receptor sensitivity to a GluN2B subunit antagonist, and induced cognitive deficits. Here, using knockout adult mice, we show that a stress-responsive transcription factor of the heat shock factor family, HSF2, which is involved in the perturbation of brain development induced by ethanol, participates in these processes. In the absence of ethanol, hsf2^-/- mice show a selective loss of LTD in the hippocampus, which is associated with an increased sensitivity of NMDA-field excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fEPSPs) to a GluN2B antagonist, compared with wild-type (WT) mice. These results suggest that HSF2 is required for proper glutamatergic synaptic transmission and LTD plasticity. After 1 month of chronic ethanol consumption in a two-bottle choice paradigm, WT mice showed an increase in hippocampal synaptic transmission, an enhanced sensitivity to GluN2B antagonist, and a blockade of LTD. In contrast, such modulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity were absent in hsf2^-/- mice. We conclude that HSF2 is an important mediator of both glutamatergic neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity in basal conditions and also mediates ethanol-induced neuroadaptations of the hippocampus network after chronic ethanol intake.

A Review on Potential Footprints of Ferulic Acid for Treatment of Neurological Disorders

Ferulic acid is being screened in preclinical settings to combat various neurological disorders. It is a naturally occurring dietary flavonoid commonly found in grains, fruits, and vegetables such as rice, wheat, oats, tomatoes, sweet corn etc., which exhibits protective effects against a number of neurological diseases such as epilepsy, depression, ischemia-reperfusion injury, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. Ferulic acid prevents and treats different neurological diseases pertaining to its potent anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects, beside modulating unique neuro-signaling pathways. It stays in the bloodstream for longer periods than other dietary polyphenols and antioxidants and easily crosses blood brain barrier. The use of novel drug delivery systems such as solid-lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) or its salt forms (sodium ferulate, ethyl ferulate, and isopentyl ferulate) further enhance its bioavailability and cerebral penetration. Based on reported studies, ferulic acid appears to be a promising molecule for treatment of neurological disorders; however, more preclinical (in vitro and in vivo) mechanism-based studies should be planned and conceived followed by its testing in clinical settings.

Astrocytic Connexin43 Channels as Candidate Targets in Epilepsy Treatment

In epilepsy research, emphasis is put on exploring non-neuronal targets such as astrocytic proteins, since many patients remain pharmacoresistant to current treatments, which almost all target neuronal mechanisms. This paper reviews available data on astrocytic connexin43 (Cx43) signaling in seizures and epilepsy. Cx43 is a widely expressed transmembrane protein and the constituent of gap junctions (GJs) and hemichannels (HCs), allowing intercellular and extracellular communication, respectively. A plethora of research papers show altered Cx43 mRNA levels, protein expression, phosphorylation state, distribution and/or functional coupling in human epileptic tissue and experimental models. Human Cx43 mutations are linked to seizures as well, as 30% of patients with oculodentodigital dysplasia (ODDD), a rare genetic condition caused by mutations in the GJA1 gene coding for Cx43 protein, exhibit neurological symptoms including seizures. Cx30/Cx43 double knock-out mice show increased susceptibility to evoked epileptiform events in brain slices due to impaired GJ-mediated redistribution of K⁺ and glutamate and display a higher frequency of spontaneous generalized chronic seizures in an epilepsy model. Contradictory, Cx30/Cx43 GJs can traffic nutrients to high-energy demanding neurons and initiate astrocytic Ca²⁺ waves and hyper synchronization, thereby supporting proconvulsant effects. The general connexin channel blocker carbenoxolone and blockers from the fenamate family diminish epileptiform activity in vitro and improve seizure outcome in vivo. In addition, interventions with more selective peptide inhibitors of HCs display anticonvulsant actions. To conclude, further studies aiming to disentangle distinct roles of HCs and GJs are necessary and tools specifically targeting Cx43 HCs may facilitate the search for novel epilepsy treatments.

2-Methoxyestradiol and Its Combination with a Natural Compound, Ferulic Acid, Induces Melanoma Cell Death via Downregulation of Hsp60 and Hsp90

Melanoma is an aggressive type of skin cancer with one of the highest mortality rates. Notably, its incidence in the last few decades has increased faster than any other cancer. Therefore, searching for novel anticancer therapies is of great clinical importance. In the present study, we investigated the anticancer potential of 2-methoxyestradiol, potent chemotherapeutic, in the A375 melanoma cellular model. In order to furthermore evaluate the anticancer efficacy of 2-methoxyestradiol, we have additionally combined the treatment with a naturally occurring polyphenol, ferulic acid. The results were obtained using the melanoma A375 cellular model. In the study, we used MTT assay, flow cytometry, and western blot techniques. Herein, we have evidenced that the molecular mechanism of action of 2-methoxyestradiol and ferulic acid is partly related to the reduction of Hsp60 and Hsp90 levels and the induction of nitric oxide in the A375 melanoma cell model, while no changes were observed in Hsp70 expression after 2-methoxyestradiol and ferulic acid treatment separately or in combination. This is especially important in case of chemoresistance mechanisms because the accumulation of Hsp70 reduces induction of cancer cell death, thus decreasing antitumour efficacy.

Ferulic acid ameliorates pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures by reducing neuron cell death

To investigate the neuroprotective effect of ferulic acid (FA) in a pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizures model in rat, the motor response, spatial learning ability and memory capability of the rats were assessed. Both the antioxidation and anti-apoptosis pathways were also investigated. In this study, male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 3 groups (n = 12 in each group). For 28 days, the rats were administered saline alone (i.p. normal saline, NS group), PTZ (40 mg/kg, i.p., PTZ group) once daily to induce seizures, or FA (i.p. 60 mg/kg) 20 min before being given PTZ (40 mg/kg, i.p., FA + PTZ group) to assess the neuroprotective effect of FA. The motor response of the rats was analysed with the Racine scale. The spatial learning and memory capacity of the rats were assessed by the Morris water maze test. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and malondialdehyde (MDA) content were measured, and both in situ staining with the DNA-binding bisbenzimide Hoechst 33258 and TUNEL assays were used to assess apoptosis. Western blotting was used to further analyse the expression of Apaf-1, caspase-9, caspase-3, Bcl-2, Bid, Bax, cleaved caspase-3 and cytochrome c. The results showed that compared to the those of the PTZ group, FA pre-treatment significantly (p <  0.01) reduced the Racine scores starting at day 4, prolonged the latency of the onset of seizure at day 28, reduced the escape latency period starting at day 2, increased the frequency of crossing the platform location, increased the SOD activity, reduced the MDA content and apoptosis percentage, and upregulated the Bcl-2 levels whilst downregulating the Bax, cytochrome c, Apaf-1, caspase-9, caspase-3, cleaved caspase-3 and Bid expression levels. This study demonstrated that pre-treatment with FA exerts strong neuroprotective effects by reducing the motor response and by improving spatial learning ability and memory capacity. The neuroprotective effect may be a result of a reduction in neuron cell death that occurs via the antioxidative and anti-apoptotic pathways.

Effects of GLP-1 Receptor Activation on a Pentylenetetrazole-Kindling Rat Model

Objectives: To study the possible anti-seizure and neuroprotective effect of glucagon like peptide 1 (GLP1) analogue (liraglutide) in a pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) induced kindled rat model and its underlying mechanisms. Methods: Thirty Sprague Dawley rats were allocated into 3 equal groups; i) Normal group: normal rats received normal saline, ii) PTZ (kindling) group: received PTZ (50 mg/Kg intraperitoneally (i.p.)) every other day for 2 weeks and iii) PTZ + GLP1 group: same as the PTZ group but rats received liraglutide (75 µg/kg i.p. daily) for 2 weeks before PTZ injection. Seizure severity score, seizure latency and duration were assessed. Also, the expression of caspase-3 (apoptotic marker) and β-catenin (Wnt pathway) by western blotting, markers of oxidative stress (GSH, CAT and MDA) by biochemical assay and the expression of LC3 (marker of autophagy) and heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) by immunostaining were assessed in hippocampal regions of brain tissues. Results: PTZ caused a significant increase in Racine score and seizure duration with a significant decrease in seizure latency. These effects were associated with a significant increase in MDA, β-catenin, caspase-3, Hsp70 and LC3 in brain tissues (p < 0.05). Meanwhile, liraglutide treatment caused significant attenuation in PTZ-induced seizures, which were associated with significant improvement in markers of oxidative stress, reduction in LC3, caspase-3 and β-catenin and marked increase in Hsp70 in hippocampal regions (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Activation of GLP1R might have anticonvulsant and neuroprotective effects against PTZ-induced epilepsy. These effects could be due to suppression of oxidative stress, apoptosis and autophagy and upregulation of Hsp70.

Ferulic Acid Exerts Anti-apoptotic Effects against Ischemic Injury by Activating HSP70/Bcl-2- and HSP70/Autophagy-Mediated Signaling after Permanent Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Rats

This study assessed the anti-apoptotic effects of the administration of ferulic acid (FrA) in rats 30 min before middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) followed by 3 d of ischemia and the involvement of 70 kDa heat shock protein (HSP70)-mediated signaling in the penumbral cortex. Our results demonstrated that FrA pretreatment at doses of 80 mg/kg (FrA-80 mg) and 100 mg/kg (FrA-100 mg) effectively ameliorated neurological functions and reduced the numbers of cytochrome c-, cleaved caspase-3-, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL)-positive cells in the penumbral cortex 3 d after ischemia. Moreover, FrA-80 mg and FrA-100 mg pretreatment markedly upregulated cytosolic HSP70, Beclin-1, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) A/B-II and autophagy-related protein 5 (Atg5) expression; cytosolic and mitochondrial X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP) expression and the Bcl-2/Bax ratio. FrA pretreatment downregulated cytosolic cytochrome c, apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), procathepsin B, and cathepsin B expression and mitochondrial and cytosolic second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase/direct inhibitor of apoptosis protein-binding protein with a low isoelectric point (Smac/DIABLO) expression in the penumbral cortex. Pretreatment with VER155008, a HSP70 family inhibitor, significantly inhibited the effects of FrA-100 mg on the expression of the aforementioned proteins expression in the penumbral cortex. FrA-80 mg and FrA-100 mg pretreatment exerts neuroprotective effects against caspase-dependent and -independent apoptosis through activating HSP70/Bcl-2- and HSP70/autophagy-induced signaling pathways. Furthermore, the HSP70/Bcl-2- and HSP70/autophagy-induced anti-apoptotic effects of FrA pretreatment can be attributed to the regulation of Bax/cytochrome c/Smac/DIABLO/XIAP/ caspase-3- (or Bax/AIF-) and Beclin-1/LC3A/B-II/Atg5-mediated signaling, respectively, in the penumbral cortex 3 d after permanent MCAo.

Activation of BDNF-TrkB signaling pathway-regulated brain inflammation in pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures in zebrafish

Seizures are sustained neuronal hyperexcitability in brain that result in loss of consciousness and injury. Understanding how the brain responds to seizures is critical to help developing new therapeutic strategies for epilepsy, a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent and unprovoked seizures. However, the mechanisms underlying seizure-dependent alterations of biological properties are poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed gene expression profiles of the zebrafish heads that were undergoing seizures and identified 1776 differentially expressed genes. Gene-regulatory network analysis revealed that BDNF-TrkB signaling pathway positively regulated brain inflammation in zebrafish during seizures. Using K252a, a TrkB inhibitor to block BDNF-TrkB signaling pathway, attenuated pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures, which also confirmed BDNF-TrkB mediated inflammatory responses including regulation of il1β and nfκb, and neutrophil and macrophage infiltration of brain. Our results have provided novel insights into seizure-induced brain inflammation in zebrafish and anti-inflammatory related therapy for epilepsy.

Effects of metformin on apoptosis and α-synuclein in a rat model of pentylenetetrazole-induced epilepsy

The present study was designed to examine the possible neuroprotective and antiepileptic effects of metformin (Metf) in a rat model of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced epilepsy and its possible underlying mechanisms. Forty male albino rats were assigned to 4 groups of equal size: (1) normal control (NC) group, (2) Metf group: daily treatment with Metf (200 mg/kg, i.p.) for 2 weeks, (3) PTZ group: treatment with PTZ (50 mg/kg, i.p.) every other day for 2 weeks, and (4) Metf + PTZ group: daily treatment with PTZ and metformin (200 mg/kg, i.p.) for 2 weeks. Administration of PTZ caused a significant increase in seizure score and duration, induced a state of oxidative stress (high malondialdehyde, low reduced glutathione and catalase activity), and led to the upregulation of β-catenin, caspase-3, and its cleavage products, Hsp70 and α-synuclein, in hippocampal regions as well as a significant reduction in seizure latency. While Metf treatment significantly ameliorated PTZ-induced seizures, attenuated oxidative stress, and upregulated α-synuclein and β-catenin expression, it also inhibited caspase-3 activation and the release of the cleavage product and caused more upregulation in Hsp70 expression in hippocampal regions (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the antiepileptic and neuroprotective effects of Metf in PTZ-induced epilepsy might be due to the inhibition of apoptosis, attenuation of oxidative stress and α-synuclein expression, and upregulation of Hsp70.

l-Carnitine Modulates Epileptic Seizures in Pentylenetetrazole-Kindled Rats via Suppression of Apoptosis and Autophagy and Upregulation of Hsp70

l-Carnitine is a unique nutritional supplement for athletes that has been recently studied as a potential treatment for certain neuropsychiatric disorders. However, its efficacy in seizure control has not been investigated. Sprague Dawley rats were randomly assigned to receive either saline (Sal) (negative control) or pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) 40 mg/kg i.p. × 3 times/week × 3 weeks. The PTZ group was further subdivided into two groups, the first received oral l-carnitine (l-Car) (100 mg/kg/day × 4 weeks) (PTZ + l-Car), while the second group received saline (PTZ + Sal). Daily identification and quantification of seizure scores, time to the first seizure and the duration of seizures were performed in each animal. Molecular oxidative markers were examined in the animal brains. l-Car treatment was associated with marked reduction in seizure score (p = 0.0002) that was indicated as early as Day 2 of treatment and continued throughout treatment duration. Furthermore, l-Car significantly prolonged the time to the first seizure (p < 0.0001) and shortened seizure duration (p = 0.028). In addition, l-Car administration for four weeks attenuated PTZ-induced increase in the level of oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde (MDA) (p < 0.0001) and reduced the activity of catalase enzyme (p = 0.0006) and increased antioxidant GSH activity (p < 0.0001). Moreover, l-Car significantly reduced PTZ-induced elevation in protein expression of caspase-3 (p < 0.0001) and β-catenin (p < 0.0001). Overall, our results suggest a potential therapeutic role of l-Car in seizure control and call for testing these preclinical results in a proof of concept pilot clinical study.