Nucleocapsid protein VP15 of White spot syndrome virus colocalizes with the nucleolar proteins nucleolin and fibrillarin

Advances in the structure and function of the nucleolar protein fibrillarin

Fibrillarin (FBL) is a highly conserved and well-researched nucleolar protein found in eukaryotes. Its presence was first identified in 1985 through protein immunoblotting analyses using antisera from patients with autoimmune scleroderma. Through immunoelectron microscopy, FBL was shown to be localized in the dense fibrillar component of the nucleolus, leading to the term "fibrillarin". The FBL protein is composed of 321 amino acids and contains two significant functional domains: the GAR domain and the methyltransferase domain. It is expressed in the nucleolus of eukaryotes. This makes FBL one of the most studied nucleolar proteins. While methylation is not essential for cell survival, the FBL gene is crucial for eukaryotic cells, underscoring the importance of investigating additional functions that do not rely on FBL methylation. This review will primarily examine the protein structural domains of FBL and its classic methyltransferase activity. Additionally, our review will examine the importance of the eukaryote-specific GAR structural domain of FBL in regulating intracellular phase separation. Furthermore, this paper analyzes recent developments in the utilization of FBL in the study of pathogen infections and cancer research over the past decade.

Current research on viral proteins that interact with fibrillarin

The nucleolus is a multifunctional nuclear domain primarily dedicated to ribosome biogenesis. Certain viruses developed strategies to manipulate host nucleolar proteins to facilitate their replication by modulating ribosomal RNA (rRNA) processing. This association interferes with nucleolar functions resulting in overactivation or arrest of ribosome biogenesis, induction or inhibition of apoptosis, and affecting stress response. The nucleolar protein fibrillarin (FBL) is an important target of some plant and animal viruses. FBL is an essential and highly conserved S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) dependent methyltransferase, capable of rRNA degradation by its intrinsically disordered region (IDR), the glycine/arginine-rich (GAR) domain. It forms a ribonucleoprotein complex that directs 2'-O-methylations in more than 100 sites of pre-rRNAs. It is involved in multiple cellular processes, including initiation of transcription, oncogenesis, and apoptosis, among others. The interaction with animal viruses, including human viruses, triggered its redistribution to the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm, interfering with its role in pre-rRNA processing. Viral-encoded proteins with IDRs as nucleocapsids, matrix, Tat protein, and even a viral snoRNA, can associate with FBL, forcing the nucleolar protein to undergo atypical functions. Here we review the molecular mechanisms employed by animal and human viruses to usurp FBL functions and the effect on cellular processes, particularly in ribosome biogenesis.

Both the Exact Target Site Sequence and a Long Poly(A) Tail Are Required for Precise Insertion of the 18S Ribosomal DNA-Specific Non-Long Terminal Repeat Retrotransposon R7Ag

Ribosomal elements (R elements) are site-specific non-long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons that target ribosomal DNA (rDNA). To elucidate how R elements specifically access their target sites, we isolated and characterized the 18S rDNA-specific R element R7Ag from Anopheles gambiae Using an in vivo and ex vivo recombinant baculovirus retrotransposition system, we found that the exact host 18S rDNA sequence at the target site is essential for the precise insertion of R7Ag. In addition, a long poly(A) tail is necessary for the accurate initiation of R7Ag reverse transcription, a novel mechanism found in non-LTR elements. We further compared the subcellular localizations of proteins in R7Ag as well as R1Bm, another R element that targets 28S rDNA. Although the open reading frame 1 proteins (ORF1ps) of both R7Ag and R1Bm localized predominantly in the cytoplasm, ORF2 proteins (ORF2ps) colocalized in the nucleus with the nucleolar marker fibrillarin. The ORF1ps and ORF2ps of both R elements colocalized largely in the nuclear periphery and to a lesser extent within the nucleus. These results suggest that R7Ag and R1Bm proteins may access nucleolar rDNA targets in an ORF2p-dependent manner.

RNA-binding protein nucleolin in disease

Nucleolin is a multifunctional protein localized primarily in the nucleolus, but also found in the nucleoplasm, cytoplasm and cell membrane. It is involved in several aspects of DNA metabolism, and participates extensively in RNA regulatory mechanisms, including transcription, ribosome assembly, mRNA stability and translation, and microRNA processing. Nucleolin's implication in disease is linked to its ability to associate with target RNAs via its four RNA-binding domains and its arginine/glycin-rich domain. By modulating the post-transcriptional fate of target mRNAs, which typically bear AU-rich and/or G-rich elements, nucleolin has been linked to cellular events that influence disease, notably cell proliferation and protection against apoptotic death. Through its diverse RNA functions, nucleolin is increasingly implicated in pathological processes, particularly cancer and viral infection. Here, we review the RNA-binding activities of nucleolin, its influence on gene expression patterns, and its impact upon diseases. We also discuss the rising interest in targeting nucleolin therapeutically.