Reply to "Letter to the editor: Comments on Cornachione et al. (2016): "The increase in non-cross-bridge forces after stretch of activated striated muscle is related to titin isoforms"

Current Understanding of Residual Force Enhancement: Cross-Bridge Component and Non-Cross-Bridge Component

Muscle contraction is initiated by the interaction between actin and myosin filaments. The sliding of actin filaments relative to myosin filaments is produced by cross-bridge cycling, which is governed by the theoretical framework of the cross-bridge theory. The cross-bridge theory explains well a number of mechanical responses, such as isometric and concentric contractions. However, some experimental observations cannot be explained with the cross-bridge theory; for example, the increased isometric force after eccentric contractions. The steady-state, isometric force after an eccentric contraction is greater than that attained in a purely isometric contraction at the same muscle length and same activation level. This well-acknowledged and universally observed property is referred to as residual force enhancement (rFE). Since rFE cannot be explained by the cross-bridge theory, alternative mechanisms for explaining this force response have been proposed. In this review, we introduce the basic concepts of sarcomere length non-uniformity and titin elasticity, which are the primary candidates that have been used for explaining rFE, and discuss unresolved problems regarding these mechanisms, and how to proceed with future experiments in this exciting area of research.

Muscle thixotropy-where are we now?

Relaxed skeletal muscle has an inbuilt resistance to movement. In particular, the resistance manifests itself as a substantial stiffness for small movements. The stiffness is impermanent, because it forms only when the muscle is stationary for some time and is reduced upon active or passive movement. Because the resistance to movement increases with time at rest and is reduced by movement, this behavior has become known as muscle thixotropy. In this short review, we describe the phenomenon of thixotropy and illustrate its significance in postural control with particular emphasis on human standing. We show how thixotropy came to be unambiguously associated with muscle mechanics and we review present knowledge of the molecular basis of thixotropic behavior. Specifically, we examine how recent knowledge about titin, and about the control of cross-bridge cycling, has impacted on the role of non-cross-bridge mechanisms and cross-bridge mechanisms in explaining thixotropy. We describe how thixotropic changes in muscle stiffness that occur during transitions from posture to movement can be tracked by analyzing physiological tremor. Finally, because skeletal muscle contains sensory receptors, and because some of these receptors are themselves thixotropic, we outline some of the consequences of muscle thixotropy for proprioception.