An obesogenic maternal environment impairs mouse growth patterns, satellite cell activation, and markers of postnatal myogenesis

Interaction of Programmed Obesity and Postnatal High Fat Diet but Not (-)-Epicatechin Treatment Modifies Muscle Atrophy Proteins Levels in Male Wistar Rats

We determine whether the offspring of obese mothers and a postnatal high-fat diet (HFD) modify protein levels related to muscle synthesis (p70S6K-alpha) or atrophy (Murf and MAFbx), and if the administration of (-)-epicatechin (Epi) can modify these alterations. We hypothesized that the ubiquitin ligases Murf and MAFbx would be increased in the obesogenic context, either by in utero obesogenic environment or by a postnatal high-fat diet, while the p70S6K-alpha kinase and its activation might be decreased. Eight groups of six male Wistar offspring formed eight experimental groups: control (C), control fed with HFD (CHFD), maternal obesity (MO), maternal obesity fed with HFD (MOHFD), and the groups with Epi intervention: C+Epi long, CHFD+Epi long, MO+Epi long and MOHFD+Epi long. By Western blot, we evaluated the Epi effect on the Murf, MAFbx, and p70S6K-alpha proteins in gastrocnemius and soleus tissues. The Murf level increased 2.59-fold in CHFD vs C group and 2.62-fold for MOHFD vs C group (p = 0.049 and p = 0.048, respectively) in gastrocnemius tissue. In soleus tissue, we observed an increase of MAFbx (1.52-fold) for the MOHFD group versus the C group (p = 0.049). Epi treatment did not modify any protein expression. In conclusion, we found an increase in the Murf1 protein levels in gastrocnemius tissue of the direct model of obesity; as well, we observed an increase of the Murf1 in gastrocnemius and of the MAFbx in soleus muscles in the group of rats obese by programming and fed postnatally with a high-fat diet (doble stimulus). In addition, since obesity could cause muscle atrophy, which results in impaired muscle function, it would be relevant in future research to evaluate these signaling pathways in animals of different ages in order to search for markers of the progression of diseases such as sarcopenia obesity.

Effects of Epicatechin on the Expression of MyomiRs-31, -133, -136, -206, -296, and -486 in the Skeletal Muscle of the Offspring of Obese Mothers

Specific myogenic microRNAs termed "myomiRNAs" are involved in skeletal muscle development and regeneration, and an obesogenic environment in utero may affect these processes. The present study aimed to determine whether this environment induced variations in the expression levels of myomiRs-31, -133, -136, -206, and -296 and whether the administration of (-)-epicatechin (Epi), an exercise mimetic, could modify these variations. Rat Wistar male offspring from control mothers (C) or obese mothers (MO) were treated (C+Epi and MO+Epi) or not treated with Epi (C and MO). MyomiRNA expression in the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles was analyzed via RT‒qPCR, and bioinformatic analysis was used to predict the participation of these miRNAs in different skeletal muscle signal transduction pathways. The expression of myomiRNA-31-5p in the gastrocnemius and soleus was significantly lower in the Epi-treated groups (C+Epi and MO+Epi vs. C and MO). The expression of myomiRNA-206 increased in the gastrocnemius muscles of the MO and MO+Epi groups but decreased in the soleus muscles of the MO and MO+Epi groups. The expression of myomiRNA-296 was increased in the MO group in the gastrocnemius and soleus but was reduced in the Epi stimulus group. The expression of myomiRNA-486 increased in the gastrocnemius of the C+Epi group and decreased in the soleus of the MO+Epi group (p = 0.028 vs. MO). In conclusion, we show that an intrauterine obesogenic environment differentially affects the expression levels of some myomiRNAs and that this effect is modified by epicatechin.

(-)-Epicatechin treatment modify the expression of genes related to atrophy in gastrocnemius muscle of male rats obese by programing

The aim of this study is to determine if the offspring of mothers with obesity, present disorders in the expression of genes related to atrophy or protein synthesis in the muscle and if these disorders are modified with the (-)-epicatechin (Epi) treatment. Six male offspring per group were randomly assigned to the control groups [C and offspring of maternal obesity (MO)] or the Epi intervention groups, Epi treatment for 13 weeks (C + Epi long or MO + Epi long), or Epi administration for two weeks (C + Epi short or MO + Epi short). The effect of Epi in the gastrocnemius tissue was evaluated, analyzing mRNA and protein levels of Murf1, MAFbx, Foxo1, NFkB, and p70S6K-alpha. After the analysis by two-way ANOVA, we found an influence of the Epi long treatment over the model, by decreasing the Murf1 gene expression in both groups treated with the flavonoid (C + Epi long and MO + Epi long) (p = 0.036). Besides, Epi long treatment over the NFκB expression, by decreasing the fold increase in both groups treated with the flavonoid (C + Epi long and MO + Epi long) (p = 0.038). We not find any interaction between the variables or changes in the MAFbx, Foxo1 mRNA, neither in the phosphorylated/total protein ratio of NFκB, Foxo1, or p70S6K-alpha. In conclusions, treatment with a long protocol of Epi, reduces the mRNA of the muscle atrophy genes Murf 1 and NFkB, in the gastrocnemius muscle; however, these changes are not maintained at protein level.

The maternal lifestyle in pregnancy: Implications for foetal skeletal muscle development

The world is facing a global nutrition crisis, as evidenced by the rising incidence of metabolic disorders such as obesity, insulin resistance and chronic inflammation. Skeletal muscle is the largest tissue in humans and plays an important role in movement and host metabolism. Muscle fibre formation occurs mainly during the embryonic stage. Therefore, maternal lifestyle, especially nutrition and exercise during pregnancy, has a critical influence on foetal skeletal muscle development and the subsequent metabolic health of the offspring. In this review, the influence of maternal obesity, malnutrition and micronutrient intake on foetal skeletal muscle development is systematically summarized. We also aim to describe how maternal exercise shapes foetal muscle development and metabolic health in the offspring. The role of maternal gut microbiota and its metabolites on foetal muscle development is further discussed, although this field is still in its 'infancy'. This review will provide new insights to reduce the global crisis of metabolic disorders and highlight current gaps to promote further research.

Growth trajectory of full-term small-for-gestational-age infants: a 3-year longitudinal study in China

OBJECTIVE

Small-for-gestational-age (SGA) infants are at risk of impaired growth and developmental outcomes, even for those who were born at full term. The growth trajectory of full-term SGA infants remains unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the growth trajectory of full-term SGA infants from birth to 3 years old in East China.

METHODS

Full-term SGA infants were followed up from birth to 3 years old. The weight and length were measured at 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36 months. Rate of catch-up growth and rates of growth deviations including short stature, emaciation, underweight, overweight and obesity, were calculated at different time points. Latent class analysis was applied to describe growth trajectories from birth to 36 months.

RESULTS

A total of 816 full-term SGA infants were enrolled in this study and 303 had complete follow-up data at 3, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30 and 36 months. At 24 months, the rate of catch-up growth was 42.4% in girls and 48.6% in boys; while at 36 months, this rate was 43.3% in girls and 52.1% in boys. The latent class analysis identified two trajectories of weight and length in boys and girls. Girls showed different growth trajectories of weight since 12 months compared with boys.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study reported a relatively low rate of catch-up growth in full-term SGA infants and has identified different growth trajectories of length and weight in boys and girls. We call for attention from health professionals on the growth trajectory of full-term SGA infants to eventually promote their health potentials.

(-)-epicatechin treatment did not modify the thermogenic pathway in the gastrocnemius muscle of male rat offspring obeses by programming

The aim of this study was to analyse the expression of genes related to the regulation of energy metabolism in skeletal muscle tissue by comparing male offspring in two age groups [at 110 and 245 postnatal days (pnd)] from a mother with obesity induced by a high-fat diet and (-)-epicatechin (Epi) administration. Four groups of six male offspring from different litters were randomly selected for the control groups [C and offspring of mothers with maternal obesity (MO)] or Epi intervention groups. We evaluated the effect of Epi on gastrocnemius tissue by analysing the mRNA and protein expression levels of Fndc5/irisin, Pgc-1α, Ucp3, and Sln. Epi significantly increased the Pgc-1α protein in the MO group of offspring at 110 pnd (p < 0.036, MO vs. MO+Epi), while at 245 pnd, Epi increased Fndc5/irisin mRNA expression in the MO+Epi group versus the MO group (p = 0.006).No differences were detected in Fndc5/irisin, Ucp3 or Sln mRNA or protein levels (including Pgc-1α mRNA) in the offspring at 110 pnd or in Pgc-1α, Ucp3, or Sln mRNA or protein levels (including Fndc5/irisin protein) at 245 pnd among the experimental groups. In conclusion, (-)-epicatechin treatment increased Fndc5/irisin mRNA expression and Pgc-α protein levels in the gastrocnemius muscle of offspring at postnatal days 110 and 245. Furthermore, it is suggested that the flavonoid effect in a model of obesity and its impact on thermogenesis in skeletal muscle are regulated by a different pathway than Fndc5/irisin.

High Maternal Total Cholesterol Is Associated With No-Catch-up Growth in Full-Term SGA Infants: The Japan Environment and Children's Study

OBJECTIVES

Infants born small for gestational age (SGA) with no catch-up growth (No-CU) are at high risk of intellectual and developmental disabilities. However, factors leading to No-CU among SGA infants are unclear. This study aimed to examine the association between maternal total cholesterol (TC) in mid-pregnancy and No-CU at 3 years among full-term SGA infants.

STUDY DESIGN

The Japan Environment and Children's Study (JECS) is a nationwide prospective birth cohort study. We extracted a total of 2,222 mothers and full-term SGA infants (length and/or weight <-2 standard deviation [SD]) without congenital abnormalities from the original JECS cohort comprising a total of 104,062 fetal records. According to the distribution of maternal TC in the entire cohort, participants were classified into nine groups per each fifth percentile with the 20th-79th percentiles (204-260 mg/dl) as the reference group. No-CU was defined by a Z-score of height at 3 years <-2 SD according to the growth standard charts for Japanese children. Multivariable-adjusted logistic regression models were carried out using multiple imputations. Additionally, a multiple-adjusted restricted cubic spline model was performed in the complete dataset.

RESULTS

A total of 362 (16.3%) children were No-CU at 3 years. After adjusting for the Z-score of birth weight, age of mother, smoking status, weight gain during pregnancy, breastfeeding and meal frequency at 2 years, and parents' heights, the odds ratio (95% confidence intervals) of No-CU was 2.95 (1.28-6.80) for children whose maternal TC levels were in the highest category (≥294 mg/dl), compared to the reference group. A multiple-adjusted restricted cubic spline model showed a non-linear trend of the significant association between high maternal TC and No-CU (p for linear trend = 0.05, p for quadratic trend <0.05).

CONCLUSION

High maternal TC at mid-pregnancy was associated with No-CU among SGA infants. Such infants should be carefully followed up to introduce appropriate growth hormonal treatment. The findings may support previous animal experimental studies which indicated that maternal high-fat diet exposure induces impairment of growth and skeletal muscle development in the offspring. Future studies are required to elucidate the detailed mechanism.