Dichloroacetate accelerates the fall in intracellular PO2 at onset of contractions in Xenopus single muscle fibers

How Priming Exercise Affects Oxygen Uptake Kinetics: From Underpinning Mechanisms to Endurance Performance

The observation that prior heavy or severe-intensity exercise speeds overall oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text]O₂) kinetics, termed the "priming effect", has garnered significant research attention and its underpinning mechanisms have been hotly debated. In the first part of this review, the evidence for and against (1) lactic acidosis, (2) increased muscle temperature, (3) O₂ delivery, (4) altered motor unit recruitment patterns and (5) enhanced intracellular O₂ utilisation in underpinning the priming effect is discussed. Lactic acidosis and increased muscle temperature are most likely not key determinants of the priming effect. Whilst priming increases muscle O₂ delivery, many studies have demonstrated that an increased muscle O₂ delivery is not a prerequisite for the priming effect. Motor unit recruitment patterns are altered by prior exercise, and these alterations are consistent with some of the observed changes in [Formula: see text]O₂ kinetics in humans. Enhancements in intracellular O₂ utilisation likely play a central role in mediating the priming effect, probably related to elevated mitochondrial calcium levels and parallel activation of mitochondrial enzymes at the onset of the second bout. In the latter portion of the review, the implications of priming on the parameters of the power-duration relationship are discussed. The effect of priming on subsequent endurance performance depends critically upon which phases of the [Formula: see text]O₂ response are altered. A reduced [Formula: see text]O₂ slow component or increased fundamental phase amplitude tend to increase the work performable above critical power (i.e. W´), whereas a reduction in the fundamental phase time constant following priming results in an increased critical power.

MRS Evidence of Adequate O₂ Supply in Human Skeletal Muscle at the Onset of Exercise

PURPOSE

At exercise onset, intramuscular oxidative energy production responds relatively slowly in comparison with the change in adenosine triphosphate demand. To determine whether the slow kinetics of oxidative adenosine triphosphate production is due to inadequate O2 supply or metabolic inertia, we studied the kinetics of intramyocellular deoxygenation (deoxy-myoglobin (Mb)) and metabolism (phosphocreatine (PCr)) using proton (1H) and phosphorus (31P) magnetic resonance spectroscopy in six healthy subjects (33 ± 5 yr).

METHODS

Specifically, using dynamic plantarflexion exercise, rest to exercise and recovery were assessed at both 60% of maximum work rate (moderate intensity) and 80% of maximum work rate (heavy intensity).

RESULTS

At exercise onset, [PCr] fell without delay and with a similar time constant (τ) at both exercise intensities (approximately 33 s). In contrast, the increase in deoxy-Mb was delayed at exercise onset by 5-7 s, after which it increased with kinetics (moderate τ = 37 ± 9 s; heavy τ = 29 ± 6 s) that was not different from τPCr (P > 0.05). At cessation, deoxy-Mb recovered without time delay and more rapidly (τ = ∼20 s) than PCr (τ = ∼33 s) (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Using a unique combination of in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy techniques with high time resolution, this study revealed a delay in intramuscular deoxygenation at the onset of exercise and rapid reoxygenation kinetics upon cessation. Together, these data imply that intramuscular substrate-enzyme interactions, and not O2 availability, determine the exercise onset kinetics of oxidative metabolism in healthy human skeletal muscles.

Hyperpolarized 13C NMR observation of lactate kinetics in skeletal muscle

The production of glycolytic end products, such as lactate, usually evokes a cellular shift from aerobic to anaerobic ATP generation and O2 insufficiency. In the classical view, muscle lactate must be exported to the liver for clearance. However, lactate also forms under well-oxygenated conditions, and this has led investigators to postulate lactate shuttling from non-oxidative to oxidative muscle fiber, where it can serve as a precursor. Indeed, the intracellular lactate shuttle and the glycogen shunt hypotheses expand the vision to include a dynamic mobilization and utilization of lactate during a muscle contraction cycle. Testing the tenability of these provocative ideas during a rapid contraction cycle has posed a technical challenge. The present study reports the use of hyperpolarized [1-(13)C]lactate and [2-(13)C]pyruvate in dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) NMR experiments to measure the rapid pyruvate and lactate kinetics in rat muscle. With a 3 s temporal resolution, (13)C DNP NMR detects both [1-(13)C]lactate and [2-(13)C]pyruvate kinetics in muscle. Infusion of dichloroacetate stimulates pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and shifts the kinetics toward oxidative metabolism. Bicarbonate formation from [1-(13)C]lactate increases sharply and acetyl-l-carnitine, acetoacetate and glutamate levels also rise. Such a quick mobilization of pyruvate and lactate toward oxidative metabolism supports the postulated role of lactate in the glycogen shunt and the intracellular lactate shuttle models. The study thus introduces an innovative DNP approach to measure metabolite transients, which will help delineate the cellular and physiological role of lactate and glycolytic end products.

Effect of high-fat and high-carbohydrate diets on pulmonary O2 uptake kinetics during the transition to moderate-intensity exercise

Mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) regulates the delivery of carbohydrate-derived substrate to the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid cycle and electron transport chain. PDH activity at rest and its activation during exercise is attenuated following high-fat (HFAT) compared with high-carbohydrate (HCHO) diets. Given the reliance on carbohydrate-derived substrate early in transitions to exercise, this study examined the effects of HFAT and HCHO on phase II pulmonary O2 uptake (V̇o2 p) kinetics during transitions into the moderate-intensity (MOD) exercise domain. Eight active adult men underwent dietary manipulations consisting of 6 days of HFAT (73% fat, 22% protein, 5% carbohydrate) followed immediately by 6 days of HCHO (10% fat, 10% protein, 80% carbohydrate); each dietary phase was preceded by a glycogen depletion protocol. Participants performed three MOD transitions from a 20 W cycling baseline to work rate equivalent to 80% of estimated lactate threshold on days 5 and 6 of each diet. Steady-state V̇o2 p was greater (P < 0.05), and respiratory exchange ratio and carbohydrate oxidation rates were lower (P < 0.05) during HFAT. The phase II V̇o2 p time constant (τV̇o2 p) [HFAT 40 ± 16, HCHO 32 ± 19 s (mean ± SD)] and V̇o2 p gain (HFAT 10.3 ± 0.8, HCHO 9.4 ± 0.7 ml·min(-1·)W(-1)) were greater (P < 0.05) in HFAT. The overall adjustment (effective time constant) of muscle deoxygenation (Δ[HHb]) was not different between diets (HFAT 24 ± 4 s, HCHO 23 ± 4 s), which coupled with a slower τV̇o2 p, indicates a slowed microvascular blood flow response. These results suggest that the slower V̇o2 p kinetics associated with HFAT are consistent with inhibition and slower activation of PDH, a lower rate of pyruvate production, and/or attenuated microvascular blood flow and O2 delivery.

Separation of metabolic supply and demand: aerobic glycolysis as a normal physiological response to fluctuating energetic demands in the membrane

Background

Cancer cells, and a variety of normal cells, exhibit aerobic glycolysis, high rates of glucose fermentation in the presence of normal oxygen concentrations, also known as the Warburg effect. This metabolism is considered abnormal because it violates the standard model of cellular energy production that assumes glucose metabolism is predominantly governed by oxygen concentrations and, therefore, fermentative glycolysis is an emergency back-up for periods of hypoxia. Though several hypotheses have been proposed for the origin of aerobic glycolysis, its biological basis in cancer and normal cells is still not well understood.

Results

We examined changes in glucose metabolism following perturbations in membrane activity in different normal and tumor cell lines and found that inhibition or activation of pumps on the cell membrane led to reduction or increase in glycolysis, respectively, while oxidative phosphorylation remained unchanged. Computational simulations demonstrated that these findings are consistent with a new model of normal physiological cellular metabolism in which efficient mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation supplies chronic energy demand primarily for macromolecule synthesis and glycolysis is necessary to supply rapid energy demands primarily to support membrane pumps. A specific model prediction was that the spatial distribution of ATP-producing enzymes in the glycolytic pathway must be primarily localized adjacent to the cell membrane, while mitochondria should be predominantly peri-nuclear. The predictions were confirmed experimentally.

Conclusions

Our results show that glycolytic metabolism serves a critical physiological function under normoxic conditions by responding to rapid energetic demand, mainly from membrane transport activities, even in the presence of oxygen. This supports a new model for glucose metabolism in which glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation supply different types of energy demand. Cells use efficient but slow-responding aerobic metabolism to meet baseline, steady energy demand and glycolytic metabolism, which is inefficient but can rapidly increase adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, to meet short-timescale energy demands, mainly from membrane transport activities. In this model, the origin of the Warburg effect in cancer cells and aerobic glycolysis in general represents a normal physiological function due to enhanced energy demand for membrane transporters activity required for cell division, growth, and migration.

Increasing temperature speeds intracellular PO2 kinetics during contractions in single Xenopus skeletal muscle fibers

Precise determination of the effect of muscle temperature (T(m)) on mitochondrial oxygen consumption kinetics has proven difficult in humans, in part due to the complexities in controlling for T(m)-related variations in blood flow, fiber recruitment, muscle metabolism, and contractile properties. To address this issue, intracellular Po(2) (P(i)(O(2))) was measured continuously by phosphorescence quenching following the onset of contractions in single Xenopus myofibers (n = 24) while controlling extracellular temperature. Fibers were subjected to two identical contraction bouts, in random order, at 15°C (cold, C) and 20°C (normal, N; n = 12), or at N and 25°C (hot, H; n = 12). Contractile properties were determined for every contraction. The time delay of the P(i)(O(2)) response was significantly greater in C (59 ± 35 s) compared with N (35 ± 26 s, P = 0.01) and H (27 ± 14 s, P = 0.01). The time constant for the decline in P(i)(O(2)) was significantly greater in C (89 ± 34 s) compared with N (52 ± 15 s; P < 0.01) and H (37 ± 10 s; P < 0.01). There was a linear relationship between the rate constant for P(i)(O(2)) kinetics and T(m) (r = 0.322, P = 0.03). Estimated ATP turnover was significantly greater in H than in C (P < 0.01), but this increased energy requirement alone with increased T(m) could not account for the differences observed in P(i)(O(2)) kinetics among conditions. These results demonstrate that P(i)(O(2)) kinetics in single contracting myofibers are dependent on T(m), likely caused by temperature-induced differences in metabolic demand and by temperature-dependent processes underlying mitochondrial activation at the start of muscle contractions.

Mitochondrial activation at the onset of contractions in isolated myofibres during successive contractile periods

At the onset of skeletal muscle repetitive contractions, there is a significant delay in the time to achieve oxidative phosphorylation steady state. The purpose of the present study was to examine the factors that limit oxidative phosphorylation at the onset of contractions. NAD(P)H was measured in real time during two contractile periods (2 min each) separated by 5 min of rest in intact single muscle fibres (n = 7) isolated from Xenopus laevis. The fibres were then loaded with the dye tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester perchlorate (TMRM) to evaluate the kinetics of the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ (m)) during two further successive contractile periods. At the onset of contractions in the first period, NAD(P)H exhibited a time delay (14.1 ± 1.3 s) before decreasing toward a steady state. In contrast, Δψ(m) decreased immediately after the first contraction and started to be reestablished after 10.7 ± 0.9 s, with restoration to the pre-stimulation values after approximately 32 s. In the second contractile period (5 min after the first), NAD(P)H decreased immediately (i.e. no time delay) after the first contraction and had a significantly shorter time constant compared to the first contractile bout (3.3 ± 0.3 vs. 5.0 ± 0.2 s, P < 0.05). During the second bout, Δψ(m) remained unchanged from pre-stimulation values. These results suggest: (1) that at the onset of contractions, oxidative phosphorylation is primarily limited by the activity of the electron transport chain complexes rather than by a limited level of substrates; and (2) when the muscle is 'primed' by previous contractile activity, the faster enhancement of the cellular respiratory rate is due to intrinsic factors within the myofibre.

Influence of phase I duration on phase II V̇o2 kinetics parameter estimates in older and young adults

Older adults (O) may have a longer phase I pulmonary O2 uptake kinetics (V̇o2p) than young adults (Y); this may affect parameter estimates of phase II V̇o2p. Therefore, we sought to: 1) experimentally estimate the duration of phase I V̇o2p (EE phase I) in O and Y subjects during moderate-intensity exercise transitions; 2) examine the effects of selected phase I durations (i.e., different start times for modeling phase II) on parameter estimates of the phase II V̇o2p response; and 3) thereby determine whether slower phase II kinetics in O subjects represent a physiological difference or a by-product of fitting strategy. V̇o2p was measured breath-by-breath in 19 O (68 ± 6 yr; mean ± SD) and 19 Y (24 ± 5 yr) using a volume turbine and mass spectrometer. Phase I V̇o2p was longer in O (31 ± 4 s) than Y (20 ± 7 s) ( P < 0.05). In O, phase II τV̇o2p was larger ( P < 0.05) when fitting started at 15 s (49 ± 12 s) compared with fits starting at the individual EE phase I (43 ± 12 s), 25 s (42 ± 10 s), 35 s (42 ± 12 s), and 45 s (45 ± 15 s). In Y, τV̇o2p was not affected by the time at which phase II V̇o2p fitting started (τV̇o2p = 31 ± 7 s, 29 ± 9 s, 30 ± 10 s, 32 ± 11 s, and 30 ± 8 s for fittings starting at 15 s, 25 s, 35 s, 45 s, and EE phase I, respectively). Fitting from EE phase I, 25 s, or 35 s resulted in the smallest CI τV̇o2p in both O and Y. Thus, fitting phase II V̇o2p from (but not constrained to) 25 s or 35 s provides consistent estimates of V̇o2p kinetics parameters in Y and O, despite the longer phase I V̇o2p in O.

The O2 cost of the tension-time integral in isolated single myocytes during fatigue

One proposed explanation for the Vo(2) slow component is that lower-threshold motor units may fatigue and develop little or no tension but continue to use O(2), thereby resulting in a dissociation of cellular respiration from force generation. The present study used intact isolated single myocytes with differing fatigue resistance profiles to investigate the relationship between fatigue, tension development, and aerobic metabolism. Single Xenopus skeletal muscle myofibers were allocated to a fast-fatiguing (FF) or a slow-fatiguing (SF) group, based on the contraction frequency required to elicit a fall in tension to 60% of peak. Phosphorescence quenching of a porphyrin compound was used to determine Delta intracellular Po(2) (Pi(O(2)); a proxy for Vo(2)), and developed isometric tension was monitored to allow calculation of the time-integrated tension (TxT). Although peak DeltaPi(O(2)) was not different between groups (P = 0.36), peak tension was lower (P < 0.05) in SF vs. FF (1.97 +/- 0. 17 V vs. 2. 73 +/- 0.30 V, respectively) and time to 60% of peak tension was significantly longer in SF vs. FF (242 +/- 10 s vs. 203 +/- 10 s, respectively). Before fatigue, both DeltaPi(O(2)) and TxT rose proportionally with contraction frequency in SF and FF, resulting in DeltaPi(O(2))/TxT being identical between groups. At fatigue, TxT fell dramatically in both groups, but DeltaPi(O(2)) decreased proportionately only in the FF group, resulting in an increase in DeltaPi(O(2))/TxT in the SF group relative to the prefatigue condition. These data show that more fatigue-resistant fibers maintain aerobic metabolism as they fatigue, resulting in an increased O(2) cost of contractions that could contribute to the Vo(2) slow component seen in whole body exercise.

Prior heavy exercise elevates pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and muscle oxygenation and speeds O2 uptake kinetics during moderate exercise in older adults

The adaptation of pulmonary oxygen uptake (VO(2)(p)) kinetics during the transition to moderate-intensity exercise is slowed in older compared with younger adults; however, this response is faster following a prior bout of heavy-intensity exercise. We have examined VO(2)(p) kinetics, pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activation, muscle metabolite contents, and muscle deoxygenation in older adults [n = 6; 70 +/- 5 (67-74) yr] during moderate-intensity exercise (Mod(1)) and during moderate-intensity exercise preceded by heavy-intensity warm-up exercise (Mod(2)). The phase 2 VO(2)(p) time constant (tauVO(2)(p)) was reduced (P < 0.05) in Mod(2) (29 +/- 5 s) compared with Mod(1) (39 +/- 14 s). PDH activity was elevated (P < 0.05) at baseline prior to Mod(2) (2.1 +/- 0.6 vs. 1.2 +/- 0.3 mmol acetyl-CoA x min(-1) x kg wet wt(-1)), and the delay in attaining end-exercise activity was abolished. Phosphocreatine breakdown during exercise was reduced (P < 0.05) at both 30 s and 6 min in Mod(2) compared with Mod(1). Near-infrared spectroscopy-derived indices of muscle oxygenation were elevated both prior to and throughout Mod(2), while muscle deoxygenation kinetics were not different between exercise bouts consistent with elevated perfusion and O(2) availability. These results suggest that in older adults, faster VO(2)(p) kinetics following prior heavy-intensity exercise are likely a result of prior activation of mitochondrial enzyme activity in combination with elevated muscle perfusion and O(2) availability.

Models of muscle contraction and energetics

How does skeletal muscle manage to regulate the pathways of ATP synthesis during large-scale changes in work rate while maintaining metabolic homeostasis remains unknown. The classic model of metabolic regulation during muscle contraction states that accelerating ATP utilization leads to increasing concentrations of ADP and Pi, which serve as substrates for oxidative phosphorylation and thus accelerate ATP synthesis. An alternative model states that both the ATP demand and ATP supply pathways are simultaneously activated. Here, we review experimental and computational models of muscle contraction and energetics at various organizational levels and compare them with respect to their pros and cons in facilitating understanding of the regulation of energy metabolism during exercise in the intact organism.

Glycolytic activation at the onset of contractions in isolated Xenopus laevis single myofibres

Intracellular pH (pHi) was measured in isolated Xenopus laevis single myofibres at the onset of contractions, with and without glycolytic blockade, to investigate the time course of glycolytic activation. Single myofibres (n=8; CON) were incubated in 2',7'-bis(carboxyethyl)-5(6)-carboxyfluorescein acetoyxmethyl ester (10 microM; for fluorescence measurement of pHi) and stimulated for 15 s at 0.67 Hz in anoxia in the absence (control condition; CON) and presence of a glycolytic inhibitor (1 mM iodoacetic acid; IAA). Intracellular pHi and tension were continuously recorded, and the differences in pHi between conditions were used to estimate the activation time of glycolysis. An immediate and steady increase in pHi (initial alkalosis) at the onset of contractions was similar between CON and IAA trials for the first 9 s of the contractile bout. However, from six contractions (approximately 10 s) throughout the remainder of the bout, IAA demonstrated a continued rise in pHi, in contrast to a progressive decrease in pHi in CON (P<0.05). These results demonstrate, with high temporal resolution, that glycolysis is activated within six contractions (10 s at 0.67 Hz) in single Xenopus skeletal muscle fibres.

O2uptake kinetics, pyruvate dehydrogenase activity, and muscle deoxygenation in young and older adults during the transition to moderate-intensity exercise

The adaptation of pulmonary O2uptake (V̇o2p) kinetics is slowed in older compared with young adults during the transition to moderate-intensity exercise. In this study, we examined the relationship between V̇o2pkinetics and mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) activity in young ( n = 7) and older ( n = 6) adults. Subjects performed cycle exercise to a work rate corresponding to ∼90% of estimated lactate threshold. Phase 2 V̇o2pkinetics were slower ( P < 0.05) in older (τ = 40 ± 17 s) compared with young (τ = 21 ± 6 s) adults. Relative phosphocreatine (PCr) breakdown was greater ( P < 0.05) at 30 s in older compared with young adults. Absolute PCr breakdown at 6 min was greater ( P < 0.05) in older compared with young adults. In young adults, PDH activity increased ( P < 0.05) from baseline to 30 s, with no further change observed at 6 min. In older adults, PDH activity during baseline exercise was similar to that seen in young adults. During the exercise transition, PDH activity did not increase ( P > 0.05) at 30 s of exercise but was elevated ( P < 0.05) after 6 min. The change in deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) was greater for a given V̇o2pin older adults, and there was a similar time course of HHb accompanying the slower V̇o2pkinetics in the older adults, suggesting a slower adaptation of bulk O2delivery in older adults. In conclusion, the slower adaptation of V̇o2pin older adults is likely a result of both an increased metabolic inertia and lower O2availability.

Linear relation between time constant of oxygen uptake kinetics, total creatine, and mitochondrial content in vitro

Following the onset of moderate aerobic exercise, the rate of oxygen consumption (J(o)) rises monoexponentially toward the new steady state with a time constant (tau) in the vicinity of 30 s. The mechanisms underlying this delay have been studied over several decades. Meyer's electrical analog model proposed the concept that the tau is given by tau = R(m) x C, where R(m) is mitochondrial resistance to energy transfer, and C is metabolic capacitance, determined primarily by the cellular total creatine pool (TCr = phosphocreatine + creatine). The purpose of this study was to evaluate in vitro the J(o) kinetics of isolated rat skeletal muscle mitochondria at various levels of TCr and mitochondrial protein. Mitochondria were incubated in a medium containing 5.0 mM ATP, TCr pools of 0-1.5 mM, excess creatine kinase, and an ATP-splitting system of glucose + hexokinase (HK). Pyruvate and malate (1 mM each) were present as oxidative substrates. J(o) was measured across time after HK was added to elicit one of two levels of J(o) (40 and 60% of state 3). At TCr levels (in mM) of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.75, and 1.5, the corresponding tau values (s, means +/- SE) were 22.2 +/- 3.0, 36.3 +/- 2.2, 65.7 +/- 4.3, 168.1 +/- 22.2, and 287.3 +/- 25.9. Thus tau increased linearly with TCr (R(2) = 0.916). Furthermore, the experimentally observed tau varied linearly and inversely with the mitochondrial protein added. These in vitro results consistently conform to the predictions of Meyer's electrical analog model.

Intracellular PO2 kinetics at different contraction frequencies in Xenopus single skeletal muscle fibers

Increasing contraction frequency in single skeletal muscle fibers has been shown to increase the magnitude of the fall in intracellular Po(2) (Pi(O(2))), reflecting a greater metabolic rate. To test whether Pi(O(2)) kinetics are altered by contraction frequency through this increase in metabolic stress, Pi(O(2)) was measured in Xenopus single fibers (n = 11) during and after contraction bouts at three different frequencies. Pi(O(2)) was measured via phosphorescence quenching at 0.16-, 0.25-, and 0.5-Hz tetanic stimulation. The kinetics of the change in Pi(O(2)) from resting baseline to end-contraction values and end contraction to rest were described as a mean response time (MRT) representing the time to 63% of the change in Pi(O(2)). As predicted, the fall in Pi(O(2)) from baseline following contractions was progressively greater at 0.5 and 0.25 Hz than at 0.16 Hz (32.8 +/- 2.1 and 29.3 +/- 2.0 Torr vs. 23.6 +/- 2.2 Torr, respectively) since metabolic demand was greater. The MRT for the decrease in Pi(O(2)) was progressively faster at the higher frequencies (0.5 Hz: 45.3 +/- 4.5 s; 0.25 Hz: 63.3 +/- 4.1 s; 0.16 Hz: 78.0 +/- 4.1 s), suggesting faster accumulation of stimulators of oxidative phosphorylation. The MRT for Pi(O(2)) off-kinetics (0.5 Hz: 84.0 +/- 11.7 s; 0.25 Hz: 79.1 +/- 8.4 s; 0.16 Hz: 81.1 +/- 8.3 s) was not different between trials. These data demonstrate in single fibers that the rate of the fall in Pi(O(2)) is dependent on contraction frequency, whereas the rate of recovery following contractions is independent of either the magnitude of the fall in Pi(O(2)) from baseline or the contraction frequency. This suggests that stimulation frequency plays an integral role in setting the initial metabolic response to work in isolated muscle fibers, possibly due to temporal recovery between contractions, but it does not determine recovery kinetics.

Central circulatory and peripheral O2 extraction changes as interactive facilitators of pulmonary O2 uptake during a repeated high-intensity exercise protocol in humans

It has frequently been demonstrated that prior high-intensity exercise facilitates pulmonary oxygen uptake [Formula: see text] response at the onset of subsequent identical exercise. To clarify the roles of central O(2) delivery and/or peripheral O(2) extraction in determining this phenomenon, we investigated the relative contributions of cardiac output (CO) and arteriovenous O(2) content difference [Formula: see text] to the [Formula: see text] transient during repeated bouts of high-intensity knee extension (KE) exercise. Nine healthy subjects volunteered to participate in this study. The protocol consisted of two consecutive 6-min KE exercise bouts in a supine position (work rate 70-75% of peak power) separated by 6 min of rest. Throughout the protocol, continuous-wave Doppler ultrasound was used to measure beat-by-beat CO (i.e., via simultaneous measurement of stroke volume and the diameter of the arterial aorta). The phase II [Formula: see text] response was significantly faster and the slow component (phase III) was significantly attenuated during the second KE bout compared to the first. This was a result of increased CO during the first 30 s of exercise: CO contributing to 100 and 56% of the [Formula: see text] speeding at 10 and 30 s, respectively. After this, the contribution of [Formula: see text] became increasingly more predominant: being responsible to an estimated 64% of the [Formula: see text] speeding at 90 s, which rose to 100% by 180 s. This suggests that, while both CO and [Formula: see text] clearly interact to determine the [Formula: see text] response, the speeding of [Formula: see text] kinetics by prior high-intensity KE exercise is predominantly attributable to increases in [Formula: see text].

Prior heavy exercise elevates pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and speeds O2 uptake kinetics during subsequent moderate-intensity exercise in healthy young adults

The adaptation of pulmonary oxygen uptake (.VO2) during the transition to moderate-intensity exercise (Mod) is faster following a prior bout of heavy-intensity exercise. In the present study we examined the activation of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDHa) during Mod both with and without prior heavy-intensity exercise. Subjects (n = 9) performed a Mod(1)-heavy-intensity-Mod(2) exercise protocol preceded by 20 W baseline. Breath-by-breath .VO2 kinetics and near-infrared spectroscopy-derived muscle oxygenation were measured continuously, and muscle biopsy samples were taken at specific times during the transition to Mod. In Mod(1), PDHa increased from baseline (1.08 +/- 0.2 mmol min(-1) (kg wet wt)(-1)) to 30 s (2.05 +/- 0.2 mmol min(-1) (kg wet wt)(-1)), with no additional change at 6 min exercise (2.07 +/- 0.3 mmol min(-1) (kg wet wt)(-1)). In Mod(2), PDHa was already elevated at baseline (1.88 +/- 0.3 mmol min(-1) (kg wet wt)(-1)) and was greater than in Mod(1), and did not change at 30 s (1.96 +/- 0.2 mmol min(-1) (kg wet wt)(-1)) but increased at 6 min exercise (2.70 +/- 0.3 mmol min(-1) (kg wet wt)(-1)). The time constant of .VO2 was lower in Mod(2) (19 +/- 2 s) than Mod(1) (24 +/- 3 s). Phosphocreatine (PCr) breakdown from baseline to 30 s was greater (P < 0.05) in Mod(1) (13.6 +/- 6.7 mmol (kg dry wt)(-1)) than Mod(2) (6.5 +/- 6.2 mmol (kg dry wt)(-1)) but total PCr breakdown was similar between conditions (Mod(1), 14.8 +/- 7.4 mmol (kg dry wt)(-1); Mod(2), 20.1 +/- 8.0 mmol (kg dry wt)(-1)). Both oxyhaemoglobin and total haemoglobin were elevated prior to and throughout Mod(2) compared with Mod(1). In conclusion, the greater PDHa at baseline prior to Mod(2) compared with Mod(1) may have contributed in part to the faster .VO2 kinetics in Mod(2). That oxyhaemoglobin and total haemoglobin were elevated prior to Mod(2) suggests that greater muscle perfusion may also have contributed to the observed faster .VO2 kinetics. These findings are consistent with metabolic inertia, via delayed activation of PDH, in part limiting the adaptation of pulmonary .VO2 and muscle O2 consumption during the normal transition to exercise.

Time required for the restoration of normal heavy exercise VO2 kinetics following prior heavy exercise

Prior heavy exercise markedly alters the O2 uptake (VO2) response to subsequent heavy exercise. However, the time required for VO2 to return to its normal profile following prior heavy exercise is not known. Therefore, we examined the VO2 responses to repeated bouts of heavy exercise separated by five different recovery durations. On separate occasions, nine male subjects completed two 6-min bouts of heavy cycle exercise separated by 10, 20, 30, 45, or 60 min of passive recovery. The second-by-second VO2 responses were modeled using nonlinear regression. Prior heavy exercise had no effect on the primary VO2 time constant (from 25.9 +/- 4.7 s to 23.9 +/- 8.8 s after 10 min of recovery; P = 0.338), but it increased the primary VO2 amplitude (from 2.42 +/- 0.39 to 2.53 +/- 0.41 l/min after 10 min of recovery; P = 0.001) and reduced the VO2 slow component (from 0.44 +/- 0.13 to 0.21 +/- 0.12 l/min after 10 min of recovery; P < 0.001). The increased primary amplitude was also evident after 20-45 min, but not after 60 min, of recovery. The increase in the primary VO2 amplitude was accompanied by an increased baseline blood lactate concentration (to 5.1 +/- 1.0 mM after 10 min of recovery; P < 0.001). Baseline blood lactate concentration was still elevated after 20-60 min of recovery. The priming effect of prior heavy exercise on the VO2 response persists for at least 45 min, although the mechanism underpinning the effect remains obscure.

Determinants of Oxidative Phosphorylation Onset Kinetics in Isolated Myocytes

At the onset of constant-load exercise, pulmonary oxygen uptake (VO(2)) exhibits a monoexponential increase, following a brief time delay, to a new steady state. To date, the specific factors controlling VO(2) onset kinetics during the transition to higher rates of work remain largely unknown. To study the control of respiration in the absence of confounding factors such as blood flow heterogeneity and fiber type recruitment patterns, the onset kinetics of mitochondrial respiration were studied at the start of contractions in isolated single myocytes. Individual myocytes were microinjected with a porphyrin compound to allow phosphorescent measurement of intracellular PO(2) (P(i)O(2), an analog of VO(2)). Peak tension and P(i)O(2) were continuously monitored under a variety of conditions designed to test the role of work intensity, extracellular PO(2), cellular metabolites, and enzyme activation on the regulation of VO(2) onset kinetics.

Metabolic adaptations to repeated periods of contraction with reduced blood flow in canine skeletal muscle

Background

Patients suffering from Intermittent Claudication (IC) experience repeated periods of muscle contraction with low blood flow, throughout the day and this may contribute to the hypothesised skeletal muscle abnormalities. However, no study has evaluated the consequences of intermittent contraction with low blood flow on skeletal muscle tissue. Our aim was to generate this basic physiological data, determining the 'normal' response of healthy skeletal muscle tissue. We specifically proposed that the metabolic responses to contraction would be modified under such circumstances, revealing endogenous strategies engaged to protect the muscle adenine nucleotide pool. Utilizing a canine gracilis model (n = 9), the muscle was stimulated to contract (5 Hz) for three 10 min periods (separated by 10 min rest) under low blood flow conditions (80% reduced), followed by 1 hr recovery and then a fourth period of 10 min stimulation. Muscle biopsies were obtained prior to and following the first and fourth contraction periods. Direct arterio-venous sampling allowed for the calculation of muscle metabolite efflux and oxygen consumption.

Results

During the first period of contraction, [ATP] was reduced by ~30%. During this period there was also a 10 fold increase in muscle lactate concentration and a substantial increase in muscle lactate and ammonia efflux. Subsequently, lactate efflux was similar during the first three periods, while ammonia efflux was reduced by the third period. Following 1 hr recovery, muscle lactate and phosphocreatine concentrations had returned to resting values, while muscle [ATP] remained 20% lower. During the fourth contraction period no ammonia efflux or change in muscle ATP content occured. Despite such contrasting metabolic responses, muscle tension and oxygen consumption were identical during all contraction periods from 3 to 10 min.

Conclusion

repeated periods of muscle contraction, with low blood flow, results in cessation of muscle ammonia production which is suggestive of a dramatic reduction in flux through AMP deaminase.

Intracellular pH during sequential, fatiguing contractile periods in isolated single Xenopus skeletal muscle fibers

The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that a preceding contractile period in isolated single skeletal muscle fibers would attenuate the decrease in pH during an identical, subsequent contractile period, thereby reducing the rate of fatigue. Intact single skeletal muscle fibers ( n = 9) were isolated from Xenopus lumbrical muscle and incubated with the fluorescent cytosolic H+ indicator 2′,7′-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5( 6 )-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF) AM for 30 min. Two identical contractile periods were performed in each fiber, separated by a 1-h recovery period. Force and intracellular pH (pHi) fluorescence were measured simultaneously while fibers were stimulated (tetanic contractions of 350-ms trains with 70-Hz stimuli at 9 V) at progressively increasing frequencies (0.25, 0.33, 0.5, and 1 contraction/s) until the development of fatigue (to 60% initial force). No significant difference ( P < 0.05) was observed between the first and second contractile periods in initial force development, resting pHi, or time to fatigue (5.3 ± 0.5 vs. 5.1 ± 0.6 min). However, the relative decrease in the BCECF fluorescence ratio (and therefore pHi) from rest to the fatigue time point was significantly greater ( P < 0.05) during the first contractile period (to 65 ± 4% of initial resting values) compared with the second (77 ± 4%). The results of the present study demonstrated that, when preceded by an initial fatiguing contractile period, the rise in cytosolic H+ concentration in contracting single skeletal muscle fibers during a second contractile period was significantly reduced but did not attenuate the fatigue process in the second contractile period. These results suggest that intracellular factors other than H+ accumulation contribute to the fall in force development under these conditions.

Prior heavy-intensity exercise speeds V̇o2 kinetics during moderate-intensity exercise in young adults

The effect of prior heavy-intensity warm-up exercise on subsequent moderate-intensity phase 2 pulmonary O2 uptake kinetics (τV̇o2) was examined in young adults exhibiting relatively fast (FK; τV̇o2 < 30 s; n = 6) and slow (SK; τV̇o2 > 30 s; n = 6) V̇o2 kinetics in moderate-intensity exercise without prior warm up. Subjects performed four repetitions of a moderate (Mod1)-heavy-moderate (Mod2) protocol on a cycle ergometer with work rates corresponding to 80% estimated lactate threshold (moderate intensity) and 50% difference between lactate threshold and peak V̇o2 (heavy intensity); each transition lasted 6 min, and each was preceded by 6 min of cycling at 20 W. V̇o2 and heart rate (HR) were measured breath-by-breath and beat-by-beat, respectively; concentration changes of muscle deoxyhemoglobin (HHb), oxyhemoglobin, and total hemoglobin were measured by near-infrared spectroscopy (Hamamatsu NIRO 300). τV̇o2 was lower ( P < 0.05) in Mod2 than in Mod1 in both FK (20 ± 5 s vs. 26 ± 5 s, respectively) and SK (30 ± 8 s vs. 45 ± 11 s, respectively); linear regression analysis showed a greater “speeding” of V̇o2 kinetics in subjects exhibiting a greater Mod1 τV̇o2. HR, oxyhemoglobin, and total hemoglobin were elevated ( P < 0.05) in Mod2 compared with Mod1. The delay before the increase in HHb was reduced ( P < 0.05) in Mod2, whereas the HHb mean response time was reduced ( P < 0.05) in FK (Mod2, 22 ± 3 s; Mod1, 32 ± 11 s) but not different in SK (Mod2, 36 ± 13 s; Mod1, 34 ± 15 s). We conclude that improved muscle perfusion in Mod2 may have contributed to the faster adaptation of V̇o2, especially in SK; however, a possible role for metabolic inertia in some subjects cannot be overlooked.

Effect of dissociating cytosolic calcium and metabolic rate on intracellular PO2 kinetics in single frog myocytes

The purpose of this investigation was to utilize 2,3-butanedione monoxime (BDM; an inhibitor of contractile activation) to dissociate cytosolic [Ca(2+)] ([Ca(2+)](c)) from the putative respiratory regulators that arise from muscle contraction-induced ATP utilization in order to determine the relative contribution of [Ca(2+)](c) on intracellular P(O(2)) (P(iO(2))) kinetics during the transition from rest to contractions in single skeletal myocytes isolated from Xenopus laevis lumbrical muscle. Myocytes were subjected to electrically induced isometric tetanic contractions (0.25 Hz; 2-min bouts) while peak tension and either [Ca(2+)](c) (n= 7; ratiometric fluorescence microscopy) or P(iO(2)) (n= 7; phosphorescence microscopy) was measured continuously. Cells were studied under both control and 3 mm BDM conditions in randomized order. Initial (control, 100 +/- 0%; BDM, 72.6 +/- 4.6%), midpoint (control, 86.7 +/- 1.8%; BDM, 61.6 +/- 4.1%) and end (control, 85.0 +/- 2.8%; BDM, 57.5 +/- 5.0%) peak tensions (normalized to initial control values) were significantly reduced (P < 0.05) with BDM compared with control (n= 14). Despite the reduced peak tension, peak [Ca(2+)](c) was not altered (P > 0.05) between control and BDM trials. Thus, the peak tension-to-peak [Ca(2+)](c) ratio was reduced with BDM compared with control. The absolute fall in P(iO(2)) with contractions, which is proportional to the rise in , was significantly reduced with BDM (13.2 +/- 1.3 mmHg) compared with control (22.0 +/- 2.0 mmHg). However, P(iO(2)) onset kinetics (i.e. mean response time (MRT)) was not altered between BDM (66.8 +/- 8.0 s) and control (64.9 +/- 6.3 s) trials. Therefore, the initial rate of change (defined as the fall in P(iO(2))/MRT) was significantly slower in BDM fibres compared with control. These data demonstrate in these isolated single skeletal muscle fibres that unchanged peak [Ca(2+)](c) in the face of reduced metabolic feedback from the contractile sites evoked with BDM did not alter P(iO(2)) onset kinetics in isolated single frog myocytes, suggesting that metabolic signals arising from the contractile sites play a more substantial role than [Ca(2+)](c) in the signalling pathway to oxidative phosphorylation during the transition from rest to repeated tetanic contractions.

Acetyl group availability influences phosphocreatine degradation even during intense muscle contraction

We previously established that activation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) using dichloroacetate (DCA) reduced the reliance on substrate-level phosphorylation (SLP) at the onset of exercise, with normal and reduced blood flow. PDC activation also reduced fatigue development during contraction with reduced blood flow. Since these observations, several studies have re-evaluated our observations. One study demonstrated a performance benefit without a reduction in SLP, raising a question mark over PDC's role in the regulation of ATP regeneration and our interpretation of fatigue mechanisms. Using a model of muscle contraction similar to the conflicting study (i.e. tetanic rather than twitch stimulation), we re-examined this question. Using canine skeletal muscle, one group was infused with saline while the other was pretreated with 300 mg (kg body mass)(-1) DCA. Muscle biopsies were taken at rest, peak tension (1 min) and after 6 min of tetanic electrical stimulation (75 ms on-925 ms off per second) and blood flow was limited to 25% of normal values observed during contraction. DCA reduced phosphocreatine (PCr) degradation by 40% during the first minute of contraction, but did not prevent the almost complete depletion of PCr stores at 6 min, while muscle fatigue did not differ between the two groups. During intermittent tetanic stimulation PCr degradation was 75% greater than with our previous 3 Hz twitch contraction protocol, despite a similar rate of oxygen consumption at 6 min. Thus, in the present study enhanced acetyl group availability altered the time course of PCr utilization but did not prevent the decline towards depletion. Consistent with our earlier conclusions, DCA pretreatment reduces muscle fatigue only when SLP is attenuated. The present study and our met-analysis indicates that enhanced acetyl group availability results in a readily measurable reduction in SLP when the initial rate of PCr utilization is approximately 1 mmol (kg dry mass)(-1) s(-1) or less (depending on intrinsic mitochondrial capacity). When measured early during an uninterrupted period of muscle contraction, acetyl group availability is likely to influence SLP under any condition where mitochondria are responsible for a significant proportion of ATP regeneration.

Facial cooling-induced bradycardia does not slow pulmonary V.O2 kinetics at the onset of high-intensity exercise

The mechanism(s) underlying the attenuation of the slow component of pulmonary O2 uptake (Vo2) by prior heavy-intensity exercise is (are) poorly understood but may be ascribed to either an intramuscular-metabolic or a circulatory modification resulting from "priming" exercise. We investigated the effects of altering the circulatory dynamics by delayed vagal withdrawal to the circulation induced by the cold face stimulation (CFS) on the Vo2 kinetics during repeated bouts of heavy-intensity cycling exercise. Five healthy subjects (aged 21-43 yr) volunteered to participate in this study and initially performed two consecutive 6-min leg cycling exercise bouts (work rate: 50% of the difference between lactate threshold and maximal Vo2) separated by 6-min baseline rest without CFS as a control (N1 and N2). CFS was then applied separately, by gel-filled cold compresses to the face for 2-min spanning the rest-exercise transition, to each of the first bout (CFS1) or second bout (CFS2) of repeated heavy-intensity exercise. In the control protocol, Vo2 responses in N2 showed a facilitated adaptation compared with those in N1, mainly attributable to the reduction of slow component. CFS application successfully slowed and delayed the heart rate (HR) kinetics (P < 0.05) on transition to exercise [HR time constant; N1: 55.6 +/- 16.0 (SD) vs. CFS1: 69.0 +/- 12.8 s and N2: 55.5 +/- 11.8 vs. CFS2: 64.0 +/- 17.5 s]; however, it did not affect the "primary" Vo2 kinetics [Vo2 time constant; N1: 23.7 +/- 7.9 (SD) vs. CFS1: 20.9 +/- 3.8 s, and N2: 23.3 +/- 10.3 vs. CFS2: 17.4 +/- 6.3 s]. In conclusion, increased vagal withdrawal delayed and slowed the circulatory response but did not alter the Vo2 kinetics at the onset of supra-lactate threshold cycling exercise. As the facilitation of Vo2 subsequent to prior heavy leg cycling exercise is not attenuated by slowing the central circulation, it seems unlikely that this facilitation is exclusively determined by a blood flow-related mechanism.